{Aaa-*j     '^' 


>  ^ 


S<^UTi-irRN  BRANCH, 

(JNIVtRSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

UBRARY, 

LOS  ANGELES.  CALIF. 


Social  Science  Xlext^Boohs 

Edited  by  RICHARD  T.   ELY 


AMERICAN    MUNICIPAL    PROGRESS 


SOCIAL   SCIENCE   TEXT-BOOKS 

Edited  hy  Richard  T.  Ely 


OUTLINES    OF   ECONOMICS 

By    Richard    T.    Ely,    Ph.D.,    LL.D.     Revised    and 
enlarged  by  the  Author  and  Thomas  S.  Adams, 
Ph.D.,     Ma.x     O.     Lorenz,     Ph.D.,     Allyn     A. 
Young,  Ph.D. 
OUTLINES    OF   SOCIOLOGY 

By  Frank    W.   Blackmar,    Ph.D.,   and   John    Lewis 
GiLLiN,  Ph.D. 
HISTORY   OF   ECONOMIC    THOUGHT  (Revised   Edi- 
tion) 
By  Lewis  H.  Haney,  Ph.D. 
BUSINESS   ORGANIZATION   AND   COMBINATION 

By  Lewis  H.  Haney,  Ph.D. 
PROBLEMS    OF   CHILD    WELFARE 

By  George  B.  Mangold,  Ph.D. 
SOCIAL   PROBLEMS 

By  Ezra  T.  Towne,  Ph.D. 
THE   NEW    AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT 

By  James  T.  Young,  Ph.D. 
COMPARATIVE    FREE   GOVERNMENT 

By  Jesse  Macy,  LL.D.,  and  John  W.  Gannaway,  M.A. 
AMERICAN    MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 
By  Charles  Zueblin. 

APPLIED    EUGENICS 

By  Paul  Popenoe  and  Roswell  S.  Johnson,  M.S. 

AGRICULTURAL   ECONOMICS 

By  Henry  C.  Taylor,  M.S.  Agr.,  Ph.D. 

THE   LABOR   MARKET 

By  Don  D.  Lescohier,  Ph.D. 


Roger  Noble  Burnham,  Sculptor. 

Bronze    Doors,    Main    Entrance,    the    Forsyth    Dental 

Infirmary,   Boston. 

The  Mother  and  the  Commonwealth. 


AMERICAN 
MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


BY 

CHARLES   ZUEBLIN 


NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION 


4454.S 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1922 

All  nykts  rf served 


Copyright,  1902  and  1916, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Nortooot  JPrwB 
J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


34- ( 

ZQ3 

Cojb,  ^ 


CLINTON    ROGERS   WOODRUFF 

LONG-TIME   FRIEND 

INCIDENTALLY   FOR   TWENTY-ONE   YEARS 

SECRETARY   OF   THE 

NATIONAL   MUNICIPAL   LEAGUE 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Chapter  I.     The  Conservation  of  the  City      ....        1 

r>|  The  Dynamic  of  the  City.     The  City's  Immaturity.     The  City's 

isj  Adolescence.     Do  you  Know  your  City?     The  Composite  City. 

^  City  Cleanliness  and  Godliness.     The  Soul  of  the  City. 

f\ 

Chapter  II.     The  City  Portal 13 

The  Best  Railway  Entrance  in  the  World.  New  York's  Titanic 
Terminals.  Chicago  Track  Elevation.  Philadelphia  Track  Ele- 
vation. Harbor  Improvements.  San  Francisco's  and  New  Or- 
leans' Water  Fronts.     New  York's  Bridges.     Concrete  Viaducts 

"^    Chapter  III.     Municipal  Railway  Regulation  ....      30 
The  Gigantic  Volume  of  Urban  Transportation.     Boston's  Sub- 

*'  way  System.     Boston's  Subway  Extensions.     New  York's  First 

Subway.     Rapid  Transit  in  New  York.     Subterranean  Chicago. 
Chicago's  China  Nest  Egg.     Philadelphia,  Too  !    Detroit's  Strug- 

■^  gle  for  Municipal  Ownership.     The  Golden  Rule  and  Home  Rule 

in  Toledo.     Cleveland's  Three-cent  Fare.     San  Francisco's  Mu- 
nicipal Railway. 

Chapter  IV.     The  City  Street 55 

The  Transmigration  of  Paving.  Granite  and  Asphalt.  Other 
Substantial  Pavements.  Wood  and  Macadam.  Tearing  Up  and 
Down  the  Street.  Overhead  Wires.  New  York's  Buried  Wires 
and  Hopes.  Baltimore  and  Washington  Conduits.  Competition 
in  Municipal  Lighting.  Municipal  Electricity.  Seattle  Lighting. 
Ornamental  Lighting. 

Chapter  V.    The  City's  Wastes 73 

Street  Cleaning.  New  York  Before  Scrubbing.  New  York 
After  Scrubbing.  Waste  Collection.  Waste  Disposal.  Balti- 
more to  Seattle.  New  York's  Waste  Disposal.  Snow  Removal. 
Smoke  Abatement. 


Vlll  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

FACB 

Chapter  VI.     Water  and  Sewerage 87 

The  Conservation  of  Water.  Los  Angeles  Water  Supply. 
New  York  City  Water  Supply.  Boston  Water  Supply.  Filtra- 
tion. Chicago  Water  Supply.  Chicago  Sewerage.  Sewerage. 
New  York  Sewerage.  Boston  Sewerage.  Baltimore  and  New 
Orleans  Sewerage.  Pasadena's  Sewer  Farm.  Public  Comfort 
Stations.     Public  Drinking  Fountains.     Public  Laundries. 

Chapter  VIL     Public  Health 107 

Vital  Statistics.  Housing.  Municipal  Markets.  Rochester 
Milk  Supply.  Infant  Welfare.  School  Medical  Inspection. 
School  Nurses.  Dental  Clinics.  Municipal  Hospitals.  Tuber- 
culosis Hospitals.  Hospitals  for  Infectious  Diseases.  Swat  the 
Fly  !     Mosquitoes.     Starve  the  Rat ! 

Chapter  VIII.     Protection 130 

Protection.  Fire  Departments.  High  Pressure  Systems. 
Fire  Losses.  Fire  Prevention.  Police.  Two-,  Three-,  and 
Five-platoon  Systems.  Humanizing  the  Police  System.  Police 
Matrons  and  Policewomen.  Traffic  Police.  Safety  Commission. 
Police  and  Fire  Schools.  The  Regulation  of  Alcohol.  "  The 
Social  Evil." 

Chapter  IX.    Justice  and  Charity 149 

Municipal  Courts.  Juvenile  Courts.  The  Juvenile  Court  of 
Chicago.  Court  of  Domestic  Relations.  The  New  York  Night 
Court.  Psychopathic  Institutes.  Los  Angeles  Public  Defender. 
Court  Fines  by  Installments.  Correctional  Institutions.  The 
Cooley  Farms.  Socializing  Charity.  Dayton  Department  of 
Public  Welfare.  Kansas  City  Board  of  Public  Welfare.  The 
Widows'  Pension  Bureau  of  San  Francisco.  New  York  Mu- 
nicipal Lodging  House.     Municipal  Employment  Bureaus. 

Chapter  X.     Indoor  Education 177 

Kindergartens.  The  Elementary  Grades.  Manual  Training. 
Domestic  Science.  Art.  Music.  Civics.  Moral  Training. 
Hygienic  Teaching.  Exceptional  Children.  School  Lunches. 
The  Home  School. 

Chapter  XI.     Outdoor  Education 195 

Nature  Study.  School  Gardens.  Agricultural  Education. 
Home  Credits.  Vacation  Schools.  Open  Air  Schools.  Wel- 
fare Work.  Truancy.  Evening  Schools.  School  Savings  Banks. 
Museum  Cooperation.  All-year  School.  Gary.  A  Complete 
School  in  Brooklyn. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  IX 

PACB 

Chapter  XII.     Higher  Education 211 

Junior  High  Schools.  Self-government.  Vocational  Educa- 
tion. Prevocational  Schools.  Industrial  Schools.  Vocational 
High  Schools.  Cooperative  Schools.  Continuation  Schools. 
Vocational  Guidance.    Junior  Colleges.     Municipal  Universities. 

Chapter  XIII.     Public  Libraries  and  Museums         .        .  228 

State  Aid  to  Libraries.  The  Open  Book.  Departments. 
Children's  Rooms.  Circulation.  Branch  Libraries.  Traveling 
Libraries.  Municipal  Reference  Libraries.  Library  and  School 
Cooperation.  Publicity  and  Propaganda.  The  Librarian.  Mu- 
seums.    Children's  Museums. 

Chapter  XIV.     Social  Centers 252 

Free  Lectures.  Chicago  School  Extension.  Rochester  Social 
Centers.  A  Nation-wide  Movement.  Recreation  Centers.  Par- 
ents' Centers.  Art  Centers.  Motion-picture  Theaters.  Citi- 
zenship Centers.  Civic  Secretaries.  New  York's  Recreation 
Centers.     Other  Social  Centers. 

Chapter  XV.     Parks  and  Boulevards 271 

Chicago's  Pioneering.  Small  Parks  and  Squares.  Parkways 
and  Boulevards.  Driveways.  Outer  Parks.  Park  Systems. 
Baltimore.  Washington.  Boston.  Rural  Parks.  Recreation 
in  the  Parks.     Municipal  Forestry.     Newark. 

Chapter  XVI.     Public  Recreation 296 

The  Joy  of  the  City.  Boston  First  in  Organized  Play.  New 
York  Playgrounds.  Chicago  Playgrounds.  Los  Angeles  Recre- 
ation Centers.  The  Playground  Movement  Public  Baths. 
Boston  Public  Baths.  New  York  Public  Baths.  Invading  the 
Country.  Municipal  Dancing.  Municipal  Music.  Municipal 
Auditoriums.  Municipal  Theaters.  Sunday  Recreation.  Fes- 
tivals.    Pageants. 

Chapter  XVII.    City  Planning 306 

Se«ports.  River  Cities.  Hill  Cities.  Prairie  Cities.  Busi- 
ness. The  City  Sky- Line.  Communication.  Terminals.  Civic 
Architecture.  City  Halls.  Library  Buildings.  Sohoolhouses. 
Civic  Centers.  Residential  Areas.  Billboards.  Recreation. 
Typical  City  Plans.  Municipal  Art  CoBiraissions.  City  Sur- 
veys. Municipal  Plan  Commissions.  City  Plans  Paying  for 
Themselves. 


X  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Chapter  XVIII.    Municipal  Ownership 359 

Communal  Wants.  The  Hypnotized  Business  Man.  Omaha 
versus  Business.  Michigan's  Effete  Constitution.  Elasticity.  The 
Sinews  of  War.  Municipal  Trading.  Private  Initiative.  Unre- 
munerative  Activities.     Municipal  Immortality. 

Chapter  XIX.  Municipal  Administration  ....  376 
The  Federal  System.  The  Crude  Bicameral  System.  The 
Organic  Federal  System.  The  Business  System.  The  Auto- 
cratic System.  The  Council  System.  The  Ultra  Commission. 
The  Organic  Council.  Popular  Rule.  Home  Rule.  Crude 
Home  Rule  in  Chicago.  Metropolitan  Boston.  Organic  Home 
Rule  in  Los  Angeles. 

Chapter  XX.     Municipal  Efficiency 395 

Social  Efficiency.  A  Municipal  Program.  A  City  Plan.  The 
City's  Life. 

Appendices 403 

Bibliography 429 


PREFACE 

This  is  a  record  of  typical  instances  of  American  municipal 
progress.  It  would  take  an  encyclopedia  to  catalogue  all  of 
the  recent  accomplishments.  The  reader  who  notes  the  entire 
omission  of  a  subject  is  urged  to  communicate  with  the  author, 
as  there  is  no  exhaustive  collection  of  municipal  data.  But  the 
reader  who  is  disappointed  at  the  mention  of  one  instance  in  lieu 
of  another  is  begged  to  consider  that  this  volume  is  necessarily 
full  of  such  omissions.  They  testify  to  the  vast  extent  of  mu- 
nicipal improvement.  American  municipal  progress  is  spectac- 
ularly evident  to  any  doubting  Thomas  from  achievements  of 
the  twentieth  century  that  could  not  be  recorded  in  the  first 
edition  of  this  book  (1902).  Any  one  who  gets  discouraged  by 
the  difficulties  encountered  in  forwarding  a  given  local  improve- 
ment has  only  to  scan  the  collective  achievements  of  this  young 
century  to  gain  abundant  courage  and  faith. 

Already  this  century  has  witnessed  the  first  municipalized 
street  railways  and  telephone  in  American  cities ;  a  national 
epidemic  of  street  paving  and  cleaning ;  the  quadrupling  of 
electric  lighting  service  and  the  national  appropriation  of  dis- 
play lighting ;  a  successful  crusade  against  dirt  of  all  kinds  — 
smoke,  flies,  germs  —  and  the  diffusion  of  constructive  provi- 
sions for  health  like  baths,  laundries,  comfort  stations,  milk  sta- 
tions, school  nurses  and  open  air  schools ;  fire  prevention ;  the 
humanizing  of  the  police  and  the  advent  of  the  policewoman  ; 
the  transforming  of  some  municipal  courts  into  institutions  for 
the  prevention  of  crime  and  the  cure  of  offenders ;  the  elabora- 
tion of  the  school  curriculum  to  give  every  child  a  complete 
education  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  vocational  course  in 
school  or  university  or  shop  ;  municipal  reference  libraries  ;  the 
completion  of  park  systems  in  most  large  cities  and  the  accept- 
ance of  the  principle  that  the  smallest  cit^-  without  a  park  and 


XU  PREFACE 

playground  is  not  quite  civilized ;  the  modern  playground  move- 
ment giving  organized  and  directed  play  to  young  and  old  ;  the 
social  center  ;  the  democratic  art  museum  ;  municipal  theaters  ; 
the  commission  form  of  government ;  the  city  manager ;  home 
rule  for  cities  ;  direct  legislation  —  a  greater  advance  than  the 
whole  nineteenth  century  compassed. 

The  book  is  designed  primarily  to  indicate  to  civic  and  social 
workers,  public  officials,  and  intelligent  citizens  the  vast  scope 
of  municipal  activity  to-day.  It  can  be  made  useful  by  compar- 
ing local  conditions  with  the  typical  instances  of  excellence 
gathered  from  all  the  cities.  The  book  can  be  used  as  a  text- 
book by  instructors  who  employ  laboratory  methods.  A  com- 
parison of  the  topics  in  the  text  with  the  conditions  in  the  locality, 
supported  by  appropriate  references  in  the  Bibliography,  ought 
to  make  a  thorough  sociological  investigation  of  the  community 
feasible. 

It  is  possible  to  express  only  impersonally  the  author's  obli- 
gations to  the  many  friends  and  public  officials  whose  kindness 
has  made  material  accessible  or  who  have  read  parts  of  the 
manuscript.  It  is  also  possible  to  pay  in  this  place  only  inade- 
quately the  debt  of  gratitude  due  to  Professor  Richard  T.  Ely 
for  editorial  suggestions  and  to  my  indefatigable  secretary,  Miss 
Helen  Bernice  Sweeney,  whose  skilled  services  in  collecting  and 
selecting  raw  material  enabled  me  to  make  this  record. 


CHARLES   ZUEBUN. 


Winchester,  Massachusetts. 
Labor  Day,  1915. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Bronze  Doors,  Main  Entrance,  the  Forsyth  Dental  Infirmary,  Boston 

Frontispiece 

FACING  PACK 

Union  Ferry  Building,  San  Francisco 14 

Washington,  D.C.,  Union  Railway  Station 14 

Colorado  Street  Bridge,  Pasadena 28 

Boston  Library  Subway  Entrance 34 

Boston  Subway  Station 34 

Municipal  Trolley  Car,  San  Francisco           ..o         ...  52 

Cleveland  —  Three  Pennies,  or  Five  Tickets  for  Fifteen  Cents  I         .  52 

Cedar  Falls,  Seattle 72 

First  Avenue,  North  from  Yesler  Way,  Seattle 72 

A.  E.  Chapman,  Redlands,  California,  Official  Fly  Catcher          .         .  112 

Cleveland  Municipal  Market  and  Cold  Storage  Plant ....  112 

Children  Taking  the  Sun  Cure  for  Tuberculosis,  Perrysburg,  New  York  122 

Philadelphia — Mosquito  Breeding  Pond  before  Blasting    .         .         .  128 

Philadelphia  —  After  Blasting  —  Water  Has  Entirely  Disappeared     .  128 

Congestion  at  the  Corner  of  State  and  Madison  Streets,  Chicago       .  142 

High  Pressure  Fire  Fighting  in  New  York 142 

New  York  City  Municipal  Lodging  House,  Christmas  Dinner  Appli- 
cants   172 

Municipal  Lodging  House  Annex,  24th  Street  Recreation  Pier,  New 

York 172 

Philadelphia  Kindergarten  Luncheon 192 

The  Operating  Room,  Forsyth  Dental  Infirmary,  Boston    .         .         .  200 

Class  Visit  to  Carnegie  Institute,  Pitt.^burgh  Public  Schools       .         .  208 
Caring  for  Shrubbery  on  School  Grounds  of  Froebel  School,  Gary, 

Indiana  ............  208 

Art  Gallery,  the  Garfield  Junior  High  School,  Richmond,  Indiana      .  220 
Story  Hour  on  the  Roof  of  a  Branch  Library,  East  Houston  Street, 

New  York 234 

Exterior    of    Roof    Garden,    Governor    Flower    Memorial    Library, 

Watertown,  New  York 234 

Reading  Room,  Chicago  Public  Library 248 

Voting  in  a  Field  House,  Los  Angeles         ......  260 

xiii 


XIV  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PACK 

Pool  Room  in  Forest  Home  Avenue  Social  Center,  Milwaukee           .  260 

Crown  Point,  County  Driveway,  Portland,  Oregon       ....  272 

Japanese  Tea  Garden,  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco    .         .         .  282 

View  of  the  Rockies  from  Cheesman  Memorial,  Denver     .         .         .  290 

Seward  Park,  New  York's  Three  Million  Dollar  Playground       .         ,  300 

The  Roman  Bathhouse  in  the  Grove,  Kansas  City,  Missouri      .         .  300 

Charles  River  Reservation,  Boston  Metropolitan  Park  System   .         .  310 

Revere  Beach  Reservation,  Boston  Metropolitan  Park  System  .  .  310 
Municipal  Organist  at  the  Kotzschmar   Memorial  Organ,  Portland, 

Maine 316 

Community  Christmas  Tree,  Madison  Square,  New  York  City,  1913  .  316 
10,000  School  Children  Hold   Annual   Fete  in  Central  Park,  New 

York,  May  11,  1915 323 

Sidewalk  Encroachments,  East  23d  Street  from  Fourth  Avenue  to 

Broadway,  New  York •  336 

Removal  of  Sidewalk  Encroachments,  East  23d  Street  from  Fourth 

Avenue  to  Broadway,  New  York 336 

A  Chicago  Suburban  High  School  Group 344 

High  School  and  Stadium,  Tacoma 344 

Chicago's  Boul  Mich,  the  Best  Lighted  Street  in  America  .         .         .  354 

The  Toledo  Museum  of  Art 374 

Multnomah  County  Library,  Portland,  Oregon 386 

Springfield,  Massachusetts,  Municipal  Group :  City  Hall,  Auditorium, 

and  Campaaile 398 


AMERICAN    MUNICIPAL    PROGRESS 


CHAPTER   I 
THE    CONSERVATION    OF   THE    CITY 

The  Dynamic  of  the  City 

"What  is  the  matter  with"  the  city?  paraphrasing  William 
Allen  White's  famous  question  about  Kansas.  The  city  is 
alive.  That  is  the  trouble  with  it.  It  is  alive  and  growing, 
hard  to  keep  clean,  hard  to  keep  straight,  hard  to  regulate 
after  dark  and  on  Sundays  —  all  because  it  is  so  much  alive. 
Have  you  had  any  experience  with  growing  boys?  Then 
don't  call  your  city  "she." 

The  typical  city  dweller  was  said  in  ancient  Rome  to  be 
"urbane."  He  is  no  more  urbane  to-day  than  the  inquisitive 
countryman  is  "rustic."  The  rustic  has  a  great  white  way 
with  him  and  the  city  dweller,  straphanging  or  speeding  up  on 
the  boulevard,  has  no  patience  with  urbanity.  He  is  too  ab- 
sorbed for  courtesy,  but  he  is  alert. 

Vitality,  not  urbanity,  is  the  keynote  of  the  city  to-day. 

The  twentieth-century  city  is  in  a  class  by  itself.  History  fur- 
nishes no  prototype.  The  nameless  people  crowd  in  to  make  a 
living  under  an  impersonal  industrial  system.^  Capital  comes 
from  everywhere  and  the  anonymous  workers  follow.  You 
hear  "society"  say  of  the  popular  resorts:  "Nobody  who  is 
anybody  goes  there  !"  Nearly  everybody  is  lost  in  the  shuffle, 
and  even  the  social  kings,  queens  and  knaves  look  rather  faded. 
There  is  no  independence  any  longer.  Out  in  the  country  the 
farmer  bosses  his  wife  and  his  help  and  puts  up  a  bluff  of  in- 
dependence. Even  the  banker  cannot  do  that  in  the  city. 
The  urban  families  are  necessarily  interdependent.  They  do 
not  know  each  other  but  they  cannot  live  without  each  other. 

The  modern  city  is  the  offspring  of  the  industrial  revolution. 
It  is  also  the  parent,  or  at  least  the  foster-parent,  of  democracy. 

'  Appendix  i. 
B  I 


2  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

If  the  people  have  to  Hve  together  they  have  to  work  to- 
gether. The  meditative  rustics  at  the  general  store  chew  their 
cud  and  discuss  abstract  democracy.  The  city  dwellers  col- 
lectively put  water  and  sewerage  systems  under  the  streets 
that  they  are  going  to  pave  and  they  learn  concrete  democracy. 
The  people  in  the  walled  city  of  old  huddled  together  for  pro- 
tection. It  was  hard  to  get  into  the  city.  The  people  in  the 
modern  city  thrive  because  it  is  easy  to  get  into  the  city.  The 
city  is  a  magnet  and  every  added  citizen  becomes  magnetized 
and  tends  to  draw  another. 

The  compulsion  of  cooperation  makes  the  city  the  laboratory 
of  applied  democracy. 

It  is  easy  to  get  into  the  city  but  it  is  hard  to  get  out.  Why 
is  it  hard  to  get  out?  The  transportation  company  is  willing 
but  the  countryman's  flesh  is  weak.  Many  come  to  scoff  and 
remain  to  prey.  But  the  forces  of  evil  triumph  only  because 
the  possibilities  of  city  life  are  so  bewildering.  That  is  why 
rapid  urban  growth  does  not  immediately  guarantee  a  richer 
life.  The  muckraker  has  found  the  city  easy  raking  not  be- 
cause it  is  poor  and  bad,  but  because  it  is  rich  and  raw.  There 
are  negative  forces  at  work  in  the  city,  there  are  destructive 
agencies,  because  much  of  hfe  is  still  competitive  and  unor- 
ganized.    But  the  vitaUty  of  the  city  springs  from  cooperation. 

The  expansion  of  the  modern  urban  community  makes  possible 
an  unbounded  enrichment  of  the  common  life. 

Everybody  knows  the  destructive  agencies  at  work  in  the 
city.  Not  everybody  sees  that  they  are  good  conditions  gone 
wrong.  People  live  too  close  together  because  they  have  not 
learned  to  build  cities  scientifically.  People  are  economically 
dependent  because  they  have  not  learned  their  power.  People 
are  envious  and  irritated  by  the  display  of  vulgar  wealth  be- 
cause they  do  not  see  how  it  curses  the  irresponsible  owners. 
People  patronize  institutions  of  immorality  because  they  do 
not  know  how  to  value  human  fellowship.  People  are  intem- 
perate because  they  overwork  some  of  the  city's  opportunities 
and  don't  see  the  others. 

Adults  are  like  children,  destructive  until  their  imaginations 
are  set  to  work  at  creation. 

These  disintegrating  agencies,  and  still  others,  are  dissipated 
energy,  human  capacity  gone  to  waste.     It  is  our  first  business 


THE   CONSERVATION   OF   THE   CITY  3 

as  citizens  to  conserve  this  tremendous  energy  of  the  city. 
Europe's  great  negation  makes  this  our  golden  time  for  con- 
servation. If  fifty  millions  a  day  can  be  spent  digging  graves 
what  ought  we  to  spend  conserving  life?  What  is  more  popu- 
lar than  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources?  PoUtical 
parties  now  ask  our  support  for  the  conservation  of  our  human 
resources. 

When  we  understand  the  dynamic  of  the  city  —  collective 
life,  energy,  vitality  —  we  shall  engage  in  the  conservation  of 
the  city. 

The  City's  Immaturity 

The  first  flaw  in  city  life  is  congestion.  People  live  too  close 
for  health,  comfort  or  privacy.  A  frontiersman  who  had  had 
no  neighbor  within  fourteen  miles  moved  on  when  a  family 
settled  within  seven  miles  of  him.  He  wanted  elbow  room  1 
The  city  tenement  where  people  have  to  go  out  ia  the  hall  to 
change  their  minds  cannot  give  full  human  values.  Congestion 
may  consist  in  too  many  people  living  in  a  square  mile  or  too 
many  in  a  city  block  or  too  many  in  a  house  or  a  room.  Mu- 
nicipal statistics  regard  an  average  of  two  people  to  a  room  in  a 
home  as  overcrowding.  Chicago  with  no  dumb-bell  tenements 
has  frightfully  congested  cottages.  New  York  has  the  worst 
congestion  in  the  world  in  some  of  its  soUd  blocks. 

Free  America  should  contain  no  city  home  that  lacks  a 
draught  through  each  bedroom,  or  a  sleeping  porch. 

Industrial  dependence  is  felt  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the 
city,  but  it  is  not  so  obvious.  An  industrial  city  generally 
contains  enough  surplus  labor  to  beat  down  the  standard  of 
Uving  of  the  employed  and  to  provide  a  dangerous  fringe  of 
irresponsibihty  about  its  industries. 

The  employed  workers  usually  have  very  little  voice  in  the 
management  of  their  daily  affairs  and  hence  get  no  discipHne 
to  make  them  self-governing  in  public  life.  Women  employed 
in  industry  are  even  less  independent  than  men,  and  the  house- 
keepers are  very  generally  economic  dependents.  Even  the 
men  of  affairs  bow  before  the  banks  and  the  newspapers. 

Three-hundred-and-sixty-four  days  of  dependence  hardly 
make  a  free  voter  on  election  day. 

There  is  poverty  in  the  country,  sordid  and  ugly.     But  city 


4  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

poverty  is  under  the  shadow  of  wealth.  Luxury  flaunts  itself 
in  tJie  city.  Mansions,  hotels,  restaurants,  churches,  theaters, 
"social  functions"  display  to  the  poor  the  unattainable.  Irre- 
sponsible riches  of  lucky  speculators  or  unfortunate  and  un- 
bridled heirs  invite  envy  and  hatred.  The  classes  Hve  apart 
but  they  meet  on  the  public  street.  Menials  multiply  and 
sycophants  poison  society  with  enervating  ideas.  Degeneracy 
follows  lu.xury  and  the  very  life  of  the  city  is  threatened  by  its 
prosperity. 

Class  consciousness  saps  the  common  Hfe. 

The  city  is  not  less  moral  than  the  country,  but  immorality 
is  easier.  There  are  more  anonymous  people,  and  there  are 
more  accessible  vices.     Youth  early  learns  the  way. 

The  city's  life  is  tense,  eager,  exhausting.  The  day's  toil 
needs  some  compensation.  Women  are  less  domestic  than  in 
the  country  and  the  habits  of  men  are  less  regular.  Life  is 
impersonal.  There  are  more  opportunities  for  illicit  gain.  The 
moral  standards  become  confused.  The  apprehension  of  the 
offender  is  more  difficult.  Laws  are  numerous  but  their  en- 
forcement is  lax  and  tedious. 

Custom  and  law  have  not  been  accommodated  to  the  larger 
life  of  the  city. 

Intemperance  thrives  as  well  as  immorahty.  The  city  man 
has  more  legitimate  thirst  than  the  country  man,  for  his  trades 
are  dusty  and  debilitating,  his  housing  dirty  and  repellent. 
The  consumption  of  alcoholic  drinks,  however,  is  not  deter- 
mined by  thirst  but  by  habit.  Good  fellowship,  facihtated  by 
methods  unrelated  to  normal  appetite,  invites  consumption 
far  beyond  bodily  needs.  The  American  bar,  where  the  very 
posture  invites  indulgence,  coupled  with  the  spurious  hospitality 
of  treating,  induces  excess. 

Drinking  is  not  the  only  form  of  intemperance  in  the  city. 
The  Ufe  is  essentially  one  of  extremes.  Business,  society,  even 
culture  and  religion,  are  pursued  so  indefatigably  that  over- 
indulgence is  general  and  normality  is  not  yet  defined.  There 
are  extremes  of  overwork  and  idleness  in  place  of  sane  industry 
and  leisure. 

The  evils  of  the  city  are  not  inherent  and  inevitable.  They 
are  the  momentary  failure  to  use  to  the  best  advantage  the 
city's  inexhaustible  latent  life. 


THE   CONSERVATION  OF  THE   CITY  5 

The  City's  Adolescence 

The  growing  city  is  marked  by  increasing  industrial  efficiency. 
There  is  still  frightful  waste  of  economic  competition,  unem- 
ployed science,  misemployed  men  and  women  and  stunted 
children.  But  the  restricted  life  of  the  remote  rural  districts 
yields  steadily  to  the  cooperative  successes  of  the  city.  The 
division  of  labor  expedites  and  cheapens  production  ;  the  in- 
tegration of  industry  saves  time  and  space ;  the  cohesiveness 
of  the  factory  and  store  inspires  the  cooperative  instinct  of 
the  worker.  Processes  are  improved ;  life  is  prolonged  ;  goods 
are  more  abundant.  The  isolation  of  the  old  hand  worker  is 
succeeded  by  the  companionship  and  cooperation  of  the  modern 
industriahst. 

Efficiency  is  coming  to  be  stated  not  only  in  terms  of  profit 
and  of  product,  but  of  human  welfare. 

Material  wealth  increases  until  it  is  a  veritable  fortune  of 
King  Midas.  The  mere  presence  of  the  people  in  the  city 
enriches  many.  Material  goods  multiply  so  rapidly  under 
the  more  or  less  sporadic  economies  of  to-day  that  the  city 
dweller  is  driven  to  dream  of  the  possibilities  of  thoroughly 
organized  industry.  Riches  increase  faster  than  the  taste 
and  intelligence  to  use  them.  Their  misuse  suggests  the  need 
of  better  distribution  in  justice  to  both  the  possessor  and  the 
dispossessed.  The  limitations  of  appetite  are  manifest.  The 
evasion  of  the  hmits  of  human  capacity  by  keeping  up  a  variety 
of  scattered  estabhshments  defeats  itself.  The  geographical 
diffusion  of  life  is  no  substitute  for  spiritual  growth.  The 
niggardly  treatment  of  pubhc  activities  has  ahready  served  as 
a  reproach  to  private  extravagance. 

Private  wealth  is  trying  to  square  itself  for  impoverishing  pubhc 
life.     It  is  giving  its  philanthropies.     It  occasionally  gives  itself. 

Pubhc  education  draws  a  growing  multitude  to  the  city.  The 
schoolhouses  begin  to  be  palaces  of  learning  miraculous  as  any 
"castles  in  Spain."  The  range  of  education  in  the  city  school 
is  far  beyond  that  of  the  country  school.  It  even  promises  to 
provide  a  substitute  for  the  education  of  the  field.  Art,  manual 
training,  vocational  training,  the  extension  of  compulsory 
education,  the  synchronizing  of  the  school  age  and  the  factory 
age  leave  the  country  far  behind. 


6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

The  city  also  boasts  of  other  educational  riches  —  the  public 
library,  art  gallery  and  museum;  the  theater,  the  press,  the 
church,  the  street !  Best  of  all,  there  is  the  wide  diversity  of 
human  personality. 

Children  are  beginning  to  return  voluntarily  to  school  after 
they  have  been  graduated. 

In  the  village  street  when  "a  young  man's  fancy  lightly 
turns  to  thoughts  of  love,"  there  are  not  even  potentially  visible 
a  dozen  mates.  In  the  city  he  may  know  no  more  from  whom 
to  choose  his  life  companion,  but  social  selection  can  make  a 
vastlv  freer  choice  possible.  The  city's  multitude  provides  the 
answer  to  the  unimaginative  farmer  whose  wife  endures  to  the 
end  or  the  fickle  city  youth  who  experiments  freely.  Under  a 
reasonable  system  of  social  chaperonage  the  pubUc  institutions 
and  grounds  of  the  city  may  facilitate  rational  and  happy  mating. 
The  city  schools  may  supplement  maternal  instruction  and 
inspiration.  The  social  centers  may  improve  upon  the  com- 
mercial recreation  of  the  community.  The  unfit  may  be  ehmi- 
nated  by  social  freedom  and  publicity.  The  dread  of  eugenic 
teachings  may  disappear  with  other  superstitions  of  inexperience 
and  immaturity. 

Why  leave  the  fate  of  the  race  to  accident? 

When  uniting  to  provide  the  fundamental  needs  of  life  people 
forget  that  they  are  peculiar  and  remember  that  they  are  human. 
Eccentricity  and  pugnacity  have  a  hard  time  surviving  in  a 
city  block.  The  antagonisms  that  still  exist  are  due  largely 
to  the  predominance  of  private  life  over  pubhc  life.  As  public 
functions  multiply  and  pubUc  expenditures  increase  human 
pettiness  becomes  more  contemptible.  While  pubhc  life  is 
mean  people  may  be  Catholic  and  Protestant,  Jew  and  Gentile, 
capitalist  and  worker  before  they  are  citizens.  Class  conscious- 
ness may  survive  the  socializing  of  our  life.  But  the  city  by 
necessity  breeds  the  cooperative  spirit  and  cooperation  makes 
the  self-seeking  unhappy. 

Cooperation  is  its  own  reward. 

Do  You  Know  Your  City? 

Did  you  ever  ask  yourself  why  you  show  your  visiting  friend 
the  bright  spots  of  the  city,  instead  of  showing  him  the  whole 


THE  CONSERVATION   OF  THE   CITY  ^ 

city?  Do  you  know  what  your  city  can  teach  other  cities  and 
what  you  ought  to  learn  from  other  cities?  If  you  were  coming 
in  as  a  stranger  would  your  first  view  of  the  city  invite  you  to 
get  off  and  explore  it?  Are  your  railway  stations  up-to-date? 
How  much  unnecessary  space  is  given  up  to  railway  yards? 
Are  there  deadly  grade  crossings?  Are  there  in terurban  trolley 
systems?  Do  huge  cars  thunder  down  the  street  and  interfere 
with  local  traffic,  or  do  they  come  in  over  their  own  right  of 
way  to  the  union  station  ?  Can  you  get  easily  from  the  station 
to  any  part  of  the  city?  Do  the  street  cars  go  where  you  want 
them  when  you  want  them?  Do  you  have  universal  transfers? 
Can  you  walk  right  into  the  cars  or  does  it  feel  like  climbing 
an  ocean  liner  from  a  tug?  Does  it  cost  a  nickel  or  less  to  get 
a  seat,  and  do  you  get  it  ?  When  do  the  franchises  expire  and 
what  are  you  doing  about  it?  Do  you  know  how  much  it 
would  cost  to  replace  the  transportation  system? 

Do  your  people  deserve  any  better  transportation  than  they 
are  getting  ? 

How  are  your  streets  paved  ?  Are  all  the  public  conveniences 
put  in  before  the  paving  is  laid,  or  do  they  forget  sometimes? 
Are  the  downtown  streets  cleaned  daily  and  nightly  and  the 
uptown  streets  annually?  Do  you  clean  the  back  streets? 
What  do  you  do  with  the  refuse?  Do  you  light  your  streets 
with  it  or  heat  your  schoolhouses?  Have  you  taken  down  all 
the  superfluous  poles?  Do  the  business  streets  in  daylight 
look  like  boulevards  or  burnt  forests?  Does  the  great  white 
way  advertise  beer  or  civic  pride?  Does  the  city  own  the 
waterworks,  gas  and  electric  light,  power  and  heating  plants? 
Are  you  proud  of  the  water  supply  ?  How  much  do  you  waste  ? 
Do  all  these  departments  cooperate  and  show  expenses,  profits 
and  depreciation  on  their  books?  Are  there  any  franchises 
expiring  so  that  the  city  may  be  more  scientifically  and  economi- 
cally managed? 

Do  you  know  that  you  read  the  citizens'  character  better 
in  the  streets  than  in  home  or  church  ? 

How  about  your  fire  department?  Is  it  efficient?  Does  it 
have  motor  apparatus  and  all  the  latest  improvements?  Do 
you  have  such  bad  building  laws  that  you  must  have  the  best 
fire  department  in  the  world?  Do  your  poUce  "arrest"  people 
or  keep  them  moving?     Do  they  round  up  prostitutes  and  in- 


8  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

terfere  with  free  speech  or  do  they  make  your  streets  safe  at 
night  ? 

Have  you  ever  had  any  epidemics?  Does  the  board  of  health 
keep  down  the  death  rate?  Has  it  authority  to  tear  down  all 
hygienic  menaces?  Does  it  cooperate  with  the  police,  fire  and 
street-cleaning  departments  to  keep  the  city  clean?  What  do 
you  do  with  your  sewage  —  fertilize  the  land  or  invigorate 
your  neighbors'  water  supply? 

Do  these  departments  handle  vigorously  and  promptly  all 
disease  germs,  fire  bugs  and  social  parasites? 

Do  your  children  stay  in  school  as  long  as  they  should  under 
present  circumstances  ?  Do  most  of  them  reach  the  high  school  ? 
If  not,  why  not  ?  Do  you  have  manual  training,  art  instruction 
and  vocational  training  so  that  they  will  be  prepared  to  be  some- 
thing besides  clerks,  lawyers  and  day  laborers  ?  Are  the  school- 
houses  used  every  available  minute  of  the  year  by  citizens  of 
both  sexes  and  all  ages?  If  not,  who  is  responsible  for  the  mis- 
use of  your  investment  in  school  property? 

Is  your  library  conducted  so  that  more  people  use  it  every 
month?  Does  it  cooperate  with  the  schools,  public  buildings, 
and  industrial  plants,  as  well  as  the  homes  ?  Is  your  art  museum 
popular?  Have  you  a  municipal  theater  or  do  you  not  care 
what  your  people  do  with  their  leisure? 

Is  education  conducted  by  educators  in  your  city  or  by  tired 
business  men  or  janitors  ? 

Are  your  public  buildings  so  dignified  that  they  inspire  the 
citizens  and  attract  tourists?  Have  you  parks  and  playgrounds 
wherever  needed?  Are  they  managed  for  the  recreation  of  the 
people  or  the  amusement  of  horticulturists  ?  Are  all  the  school- 
houses  surrounded  by  play  spaces?  Where  do  the  boys  and 
girls  learn  to  swim?  Can  the  whole  population  keep  clean  in 
winter  as  well  as  in  summer?  Have  you  annexed  as  much  of 
the  countryside  for  pubUc  recreation  as  the  future  of  the  city 
warrants?     Is  your  city  planned  for  yesterday  or  to-morrow? 

Do  you  take  as  good  care  of  the  Hving  as  of  the  dead  ? 

The  Composite  City 

It  has  been  a  common  superstition  that  municipal  government 
is  a  failure.     It  is  not  yet  what  we  could  wish.     But  the  external 


THE   CONSERVATION   OF   THE   CITY  9 

accomplishments  of  American  cities  have  been  varied  and 
creditable.  If  we  assemble  the  best  examples  of  their  municipal 
successes,  we  produce  a  picture  of  a  composite  city  inspiring  and 
compelling.  Each  city  is  fragmentary  and  unsatisfactory ;  the 
composite  city  is  already  realized  and  provides  a  practicable 
vision. 

The  composite  city  is  not  the  ultimate  city,  but  it  is  a  con- 
venient working  ideal. 

The  city  is  not  responsible  for  its  topography,  but  some 
municipalities  have  been  so  richly  endowed  by  nature  that 
they  have  large  obligations.  San  Francisco,  with  its  bay  and 
Golden  Gate  and  ocean,  is  the  most  beautifully  situated  city 
in  America.  New  York  and  Pittsburgh,  both  located  at  the 
confluence  of  rivers,  are  favored  beyond  other  cities.  Pittsburgh 
especially,  with  its  hills,  has  unsuspected  opportunities.  Seattle, 
Rome-like  on  many  hills,  surpasses  Rome  in  its  outlook  on  the 
mountains.  Even  cities  of  the  plain,  like  Denver  and  Los 
Angeles,  may  have  majestic  mountain  views.  It  is  unpardon- 
able for  such  cities  to  be  ugly,  but  it  is  possible  for  the  most 
unfavorably  situated  cities  to  be  beautiful. 

The  secret  of  commercial  and  aesthetic  success  is  respect  for 
topography. 

Why  should  not  every  city  have  such  a  rational  city  plan  as 
that  of  Washington  ?  The  nation's  capital  furnishes  the  stand- 
ard for  all  cities  at  home  and  abroad,  having  ease  of  communica- 
tion from  every  part  of  the  city  to  every  other  and  the  best 
railway  entrance  in  the  world.  The  dignity  of  the  approach 
to  Washington  is  rivaled  only  by  the  Union  Ferry  Station  of 
San  Francisco,  where  nature's  contribution  has  been  respected. 
Among  the  minor  cities,  Providence  serves  as  a  model  because 
most  of  the  transportation  Unes  of  Rhode  Island  converge  at  a 
union  station  that  faces  a  spacious  plaza  and  has  the  beautiful 
State  Capitol  building  for  a  background.  After  the  scientific 
planning  of  the  streets  the  first  consideration  for  a  city  is  local 
transportation.  Washington  shares  with  Manhattan  the  unique 
advantage  of  being  free  from  overhead  trolley  wires ;  Cleveland 
is  proving  that  three-cent  fares  pay  and  San  Francisco  that 
municipal  ownership  is  profitable. 

If  architects  are  needed  to  build  houses,  why  not  to  build 
cities  ? 


lO  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

City  Cleanliness  and  Godliness 

A  certificate  of  the  city's  character  is  written  in  the  city's 
streets.  The  street  is  a  sj'mbol  of  the  city's  Hfe.  Why  should 
city  streets  be  disfigured  when  we  know  that  those  of  New 
Haven  are  lined  by  overarching  elm  trees?  Manhattan  and 
Baltimore  have  taken  down  their  unsightly  poles.  Oklahoma 
City  has  an  elaborate  system  of  street  paving.  The  streets 
of  Denver  testify  to  thorough  housecleaning.  Compact  Phila- 
delphia has  abundant  lighting  in  all  its  streets  and  alle3^s,  and 
the  great  white  ways  of  Los  Angeles  have  been  imitated  all 
across  the  continent.  In  the  larger  cities  all  obstructions  are 
being  removed  from  the  streets.  Chicago  has  telephone  con- 
duits even  in  the  scattered  residence  districts  and  a  freight 
tunnel  under  every  downtown  thoroughfare.  New  York  has 
an  express  subway  running  under  rivers  and  skyscrapers,  while 
Boston's  little  subway  system  links  the  vast  web  of  surface 
cars  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans, 
long  belated,  are  completing  our  most  modern  sewerage  systems 
under  streets  that  until  recently  were  primitive. 

The  unobstructed  tree-lined  vista  of  the  American  street  is 
America's  chief  contribution  to  city  making. 

The  standards  of  physical  and  moral  health  are  bounding 
upward  in  American  cities.  Los  Angeles  has  gone  two  hundred 
miles  away  for  an  adequate  pure  water  supply.  Salt  Lake 
City  turns  fresh  mountain  water  into  its  gutters  daily.  Chicago 
and  Lansing  have  sanitary  drinking  fountains  at  frequent  inter- 
vals along  their  thoroughfares.  New  York  City  established 
the  first  high  pressure  fire  system  and  is  being  equipped  with 
comfort  stations  on  the  scale  of  European  cities.  St.  Louis 
and  other  communities  are  learning  the  virtue  of  extensive 
street  flushing.  Milwaukee  leads  in  free  natatoriums  for  use 
all  the  year,  Baltimore  in  public  laundries,  Chicago  and  Boston 
in  summer  swimming  pools.  The  health  departments  of  all 
cities  are  being  stiffened,  especially  by  the  example  of  Rochester. 
Pubhc  markets  are  multiplying,  spurred  on  by  the  extensive 
system  of  New  Orleans.  The  Tenement  House  Commission 
of  New  York  rebukes  those  cities  that  are  still  indifferent  to 
housing  conditions. 

Civic  health  is  attaining  spiritual  proportions. 


THE   CONSERVATION  OF  THE   CITY  II 

Chicago  has  an  elaborate  classification  of  municipal  courts 
designed  to  treat  each  offender  as  a  separate  personality.  One 
by  one  there  have  developed  a  juvenile  court,  a  boys'  court, 
and  morals  and  domestic  relations  courts  to  distinguish  ofTenders 
from  criminals.  As  Chicago  diiTerentiates,  Kansas  City  cor- 
relates in  the  Board  of  Public  Welfare,  bringing  together  scat- 
tered institutions  with  a  new  moral  and  social  vision. 

The  dogma  of  original  sin  has  been  scotched  in  progressive 
cities. 

The  Soul  of  the  City 

The  public  schoolhouse  has  become  a  center  of  beauty  and 
life,  as  well  as  of  light  in  American  municipalities.  St.  Louis 
sets  the  pace  for  the  country  in  beautiful  schoolhouses,  Chicago 
in  scientific  school  buildings.  Yet  individual  instances  of  dis- 
tinction are  scattered  over  the  country.  The  most  notable 
high  school  building  of  the  country  overlooks  Puget  Sound  in 
Tacoma.  Menomonie,  Wisconsin,  was  a  pioneer  with  its 
school  swimming  tank  and  Andover  with  its  school  campus, 
although  imitators  are  legion.  The  uses  of  the  school  structures 
range  from  the  specialized  functions  of  the  quadrangle  of  build- 
ings at  Kenilworth,  Illinois,  to  the  concentrated  activities  of 
the  Washington  Irving  High  School  in  New  York.  The  former 
represents  a  modern  departure  in  having  an  auditorium  opening 
upon  the  street,  as  has  the  high  school  at  Richmond,  Indiana, 
that  includes  also  the  unique  public  art  gallery  occupying  the 
whole  of  its  upper  floor. 

The  truant  officer  will  soon  go  out  into  the  byways  and  hedges 
and  compel  the  public  to  come  in. 

Few  public  libraries  compare  with  Boston's  in  beauty,  but 
most  of  them  excel  it  in  democratic  service.  The  branch 
libraries  of  Pittsburgh,  St.  Louis  and  Detroit  are  only  better 
endowed  than  many  others.  Chicago  and  Toledo  lead  in  the 
daily  patronage  of  their  art  galleries,  but  Richmond  secures 
an  attendance  of  half  the  population  at  its  annual  exhibit. 
Groups  of  municipal  buildings  are  multiplying,  like  those  at 
Springfield,  Massachusetts,  and  Cleveland,  establishing  stand- 
ards of  distinction  like  the  cities  of  history.  Washington  is 
alone  in  the  wide  distribution  of  its  monuments,  but  Monument 
Square  in  Baltimore  and  the  Capitol  grounds  of  Richmond  are 
embellished  by  a  now  accepted  American  standard- 


12  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

Civic  art  no  longer  languishes  in  the  United  States. 

Boston  has  developed  in  twenty  years  the  most  comprehensive 
and  well-distributed  park  system  in  the  nation.  Its  nearest 
rival  is  Kansas  City,  Missouri.  In  ten  years  Chicago  redeemed 
its  defective  park  system  by  the  addition  of  the  greatest  system 
of  recreation  grounds  in  the  world.  The  drives  of  Madison, 
Wisconsin,  Portland,  Oregon,  and  Colorado  Springs  annex  the 
countryside  as  their  rivals  are  doing  annually.  Even  Boston's 
endowed  Common  —  fifty  acres  of  beautiful  open  space  in  the 
heart  of  the  city  —  is  no  longer  unique.  The  redemption  of 
the  Mall  in  Washington  and  the  creation  of  Grant  Park  in 
Chicago  testify  to  a  growing  respect  for  life  in  the  midst  of  the 
means  of  livelihood  in  busy  American  cities. 

Why  should  any  city  lack  what  man  has  wortliily  made  in 
any  other  city  ? 


CHAPTER  II 
THE   CITY   PORTAL 

The  gateway  of  the  walled  city  has  its  modern  counterpart  in 
the  railway  station.  The  dignity  of  the  city  entrance  can  be 
maintained  as  easily  in  these  huge  twentieth-century  agglomera- 
tions of  people  as  in  the  congested  ancient  cities  within  their 
protective  walls.  The  crux  of  interurban  transportation  is 
the  terminal.  Well-ordered  terminal  facilities  will  of  necessity 
be  imposing;  they  can  easily  be  made  dignified  or  in  the  case 
of  the  largest  cities  majestic. 

The  city  approach  is  not  Umited  to  the  railway  station.  It 
may  be  by  water  or  over  water  or  land.  The  ferry  stations, 
bridges,  and  viaducts  when  most  serviceable  are  most  beautiful. 
If  all  of  these  city  entrances  are  correlated  with  each  other  and 
with  the  local  transportation  system,  the  maximum  of  service 
is  secured  with  the  maximum  of  dignity.  The  magnitude  of 
terminal  improvements  in  American  cities  is  colossal  and  in- 
spiring, but  their  service  is  still  inadequate.  Washington  has 
undoubtedly  the  most  beautiful  railway  station,  San  Francisco 
the  most  imposing  water  entrance,  Galveston  the  most  satis- 
factory viaduct,  Providence  the  best  correlation  of  facilities. 

First  impressions  are  enduring  with  cities  as  with  men. 

The  Best  Railway  Entrance  in  the  World 

The  best  planned  city  in  the  world  was  laid  out  so  prematurely 
that  it  took  a  century  to  grasp  its  possibilities.  When  L'Enfant 
made  the  plan  for  the  capital  of  this  country  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  with  the  aid  of  suggestions  from  Washington  and  Jeffer- 
son, he  supposed  that  the  capital  would  be  approached  by  water 
and  designed  a  canal  to  run  from  the  Potomac  to  the  heart  of 
the  city.  With  the  advent  of  railway  transportation  the  en- 
thusiasm for  this  new  form  of  rapid  transit  ran  so  high  that  ar- 

13 


14  AMERICA.N   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

tistic  considerations  were  ignored.  Perhaps  the  greatest  civic  blot 
in  any  American  community  was  the  railway  station  constructed 
Dn  Washington  Mall.  When  one  remembers  that  L'Enfant's 
plan  was  to  have  a  great  formal  park  stretching  from  the  Capitol 
to  the  Potomac,  with  vistas  through  stately  trees  like  the  Long 
Walk  at  Windsor  or  the  avenues  of  Versailles,  the  planting  of  a 
railway  station  in  the  midst  of  that  park  seems  a  crime.  This 
capital  offense  was  not  mitigated  by  the  character  of  the  archi- 
tecture, for  human  ingenuity  could  hardly  have  devised  any- 
thing uglier. 

Nineteenth-century  city  builders  were  so  immature  they  were 
as  oblivious  to  beauty  as  a  small  boy  is  to  Titian  hair. 

When  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  inaugurated  the 
redemption  of  Washington  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  their  magnificent  vision  did  not  prevent  their  temporiz- 
ing with  the  problem  of  railway  terminals.  It  seemed  possible 
to  tear  down  or  erect  public  buildings  at  will,  but  the  incubus 
of  the  railway  stations  they  thought  insuperable.  The  courage 
and  audacity  of  D.  H.  Burnham,  Chairman  of  the  Washington 
Commission  and  fortunately  architect  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railway,  achieved  the  miracle  of  surrendering  the  site  on  the 
Mall,  uniting  all  the  railways  terminating  in  Washington, 
abandoning  every  other  station,  and  concentrating  on  a  union 
station  at  the  logical  location.  The  radiating  streets  of  Wash- 
ington produce  numerous  focal  points  about  the  city,  making 
convenient  transportation  centers.  At  the  most  appropriate 
of  these  was  built  the  new  station  facing  a  plaza  and  providing 
the  visitor  as  his  first  glimpse  of  Washington  with  a  vista  of  the 
majestic  dome  of  the  Capitol. 

Faith  of  old  was  said  to  be  able  to  remove  mountains  but  faith 
to-day  actually  removes  railway  stations. 

The  city  has  not  only  been  relieved  of  hideous  railway  stations 
and  unrelated  transportation  services  but  grade  crossings  have 
been  eliminated  with  consequent  economy,  convenience  and 
the  saving  of  life  and  limb.  Not  less  than  $25,000,000  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  spent  in  making  these  improvements,  in- 
volving an  expenditure  of  five  and  a  half  millions  by  the  United 
States  Government  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  tracks 
are  depressed  throughout  most  of  the  city,  those  coming  from 
the  South  and  passing  through  the  heart  of  Washington  being 


Courtesy  of  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  oj  Commerce. 

Union  Ferry  Building,  San  Francisco. 


Courtesy  of  the  Pcnnsytvania  Railway  Company. 

Washington,  D.C,  Union  Railway  Station. 


THE   CITY    PORTAL  15 

carried  in  a  tunnel.  As  they  reach  the  station  they  not  only 
spread  into  a  space  ample  for  the  capital  city's  occasional 
enormous  traffic,  but  they  facilitate  the  handling  of  the  pas- 
sengers by  coming  in  on  two  levels.  The  only  stations  exceed- 
ing Washington's  in  area  are  the  two  great  terminals  in  New 
York. 

A  stub-end  station  is  never  a  good  station.     The  switching 
tracks  must  be  outside  of  the  station. 

The  facade  of  this  great  building  is  of  white  granite,  as  wide 
as  that  of  the  Capitol  itself.  Three  huge  arches  give  a  majesty 
that  could  not  be  equaled  by  colonnades  such  as  dominate 
the  architecture  of  the  adjoining  post-office  building.  The 
concourse,  with  an  area  of  97,500  square  feet,  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  room  in  the  world,  its  dimensions  being  planned  for  the 
exceptional  patronage  of  inauguration  time.  For  this  purpose 
there  are  also  a  special  entrance  and  a  suite  for  the  use  of  the 
President,  foreign  diplomats  and  other  officials.  The  station 
looks  out  upon  a  plaza  1000  feet  in  length  and  500  feet  in  width, 
formally  treated  with  an  impressive  fountain  representing  the 
globe,  in  the  midst  of  skillful  landscape  architecture.  A  large 
number  of  local  transportation  lines  converge  on  this  plaza, 
giving  access  to  all  parts  of  Washington.  This  entire  section 
of  the  city  is  being  reconstructed  and  the  new  office  buildings 
about  the  Capitol  will  so  affect  property  values  that  the  sur- 
roundings promise  to  harmonize  with  the  station  and  the  public 
buildings.  This  is  not  only  America's  best  railway  terminal, 
but  doubtless  the  most  important  portal  to  any  city  in  the 
world.  It  must  be  a  civic  inspiration  to  all  other  communities, 
for  it  reveals  the  fact  that  a  railway  terminal  need  not  be  for- 
bidding but  should  herald  the  claims  of  the  city.  It  is  as  though 
the  city  stood  with  open  arms  awaiting  visitors. 

All  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  say  to  each  citizen: 
"  Welcome  to  our  city  ! " 

New  York's  Titanic  Terminals 

The  greatest  city  in  the  Western  World  was  until  recently 
so  ill-equipped  with  terminal  facilities  that  one  of  a  dozen 
trunk  Hne  railways  could  advertise  its  possession  of  the  only 
railway  station  on  Manhattan  Island.     At  the  same  time  its 


l6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

uniqueness  was  the  only  claim  this  station  had  to  distinction. 
On  the  railway  side  it  was  reached  by  a  tunnel  that  was  a  con- 
stant menace  to  human  hfe,  and  on  the  city  side  it  faced  a  tunnel 
that  prevented  any  possibiUty  of  adequate  distribution  of  the 
passengers  from  the  station  to  the  city.  Most  of  the  travelers 
to  the  American  metropoUs  reached  it  by  ferryboats,  the  very 
latect  of  which  would  not  bear  comparison  with  San  Francisco's 
ferry  system. 

The  political  annexation  of  Alaska,  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philip- 
pines has  at  last  been  followed  by  the  physical  annexation  of 
New  York.  City  to  the  United  States. 

The  improvement  of  New  York's  transportation  has  been  so 
great  that  it  can  boast  of  two  titanic  terminals  unrivaled  in 
capacity  and  appointments  in  the  world.  The  cost  of  these 
two  railway  entrances  may  best  express  their  size  to  American 
enthusiasts.  The  stations  and  their  approaches  cost  over 
$250,000,000,  about  the  amount  needed  to  put  two  transcon- 
tinental railways  across  Canada.  The  Pennsylvania  Railway 
not  only  was  obUged  to  clear  an  immense  area  for  a  perfectly 
new  approach  to  the  city,  but  was  compelled  to  put  tunnels 
under  the  Hudson  and  East  rivers  and  parts  of  Manhattan, 
Hoboken  and  Long  Island  City.  The  Pennsylvania  Station 
is  therefore  more  of  a  revolutionary  enterprise  than  the  Grand 
Central  Station.  It  supplants  the  old  ferry  systems,  giving 
greater  expedition  and  convenience,  especially  in  winter.  The 
station  also  accommodates  the  Long  Island  Railway  with  four 
tracks  under  the  East  River.  The  total  length  of  the  twin 
tunnels  from  New  Jersey  to  Long  Island  is  over  five  miles. 
The  amount  of  trackage  for  which  provision  had  to  be  made 
by  the  destruction  of  buildings,  cutting  and  tunneUng  in  the 
city  is  sixteen  miles.  Nearly  a  mile  of  city  streets  and  avenues 
had  to  be  carried  on  bridges  over  these  depressed  tracks.  The 
Pennsylvania  Station  is  superior  to  the  Grand  Central  in  the 
dignity  of  its  architecture  and  in  the  fact  that  not  all  of  its 
tracks  are  stub,  thus  giving  an  easier  disposition  of  the  dead 
cars. 

The  Pennsylvania  passengers  are  now  landed  within  sight  of 
Broadway  instead  of  in  a  neighboring  commonwealth. 

The  Grand  Central  Station  involved  quite  as  much  excava- 
tion as   the   Pennsylvania  Station,   although   the  old   tunnel 


THE   CITY   PORTAL  1 7 

approach  already  existed.  In  eight  years'  time  there  were 
blasted  and  quarried  over  3,000,000  cubic  yards  of  stone.  This 
enormous  enterprise  was  carried  on  without  suspending  the 
800  daily  trains  of  the  New  York  Central  and  New  Haven 
Railways.  The  station  has  four  times  the  capacity  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Station.  The  area  covered  by  the  Grand  Central 
Station  and  yard  is  nearly  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
Pennsylvania  and  much  larger  than  any  other  station  in  the 
world.  In  spite  of  occupying  this  immense  area,  the  depression 
of  the  tracks  set  free  twenty  city  blocks  for  buildings.  There 
are  five  separate  levels :  the  gallery  entered  from  Vanderbilt 
Avenue,  the  main  concourse  on  the  level  of  42d  Street,  the 
upper  level  of  forty-two  tracks  for  the  through  express  trains, 
the  lower  level  of  twenty-five  suburban  tracks,  and  below  all 
of  these  the  subways  for  handling  baggage.  When  the  local 
transportation  approaches  are  completed  there  will  be  three 
subway  systems  at  different  levels  adjoining  the  strata  of  the 
station.  One  of  the  significant  features  of  this  great  terminal 
is  the  inclined  plane  system  by  which  the  different  levels  are 
reached,  thus  not  only  removing  the  danger  of  stairways,  but 
keeping  separate  the  incoming  and  outgoing  passengers. 

The  Grand  Central  is  a  twentieth-century  station,  but  its 
patrons  walk  out  of  this  modern  miracle  into  the  nineteenth- 
century  streets  of  New  York. 

These  two  enormous  and  expensive  improvements,  involving 
the  substitution  of  the  railway  for  the  ferry  and  of  electricity 
for  steam,  provide  for  a  capacity  equal  to  the  expected  increase 
of  traffic  even  in  New  York.  Yet  these  impressive  entrances 
were  completed  at  a  hitherto  unheard-of  expense,  without  any 
provision  being  made  for  connecting  them.  They  do  not  even 
connect  by  tunnels,  which  would  enormously  cheapen  their 
administration.  After  excavating  millions  of  cubic  yards  of 
material,  requiring  the  bridging  and  tunneling  of  streets,  no 
single  street  alteration  has  been  made  to  facilitate  communica- 
tion between  these  two  stations.  Although  the  local  trans- 
portation services  included  a  rapid  transit  subway  from  Brooklyn 
to  the  Bronx,  with  its  most  important  station  at  the  Grand 
Central  terminal,  and  the  McAdoo  New  Jersey  tunnels,  with 
one  of  their  terminals  a  block  from  the  Pennsylvania  Station, 
no    underground    connection    had    been    begun    when    these 


l8  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

$250,000,000  entrances  to  New  York  City  were  put  in  opera- 
tion. With  such  twentieth-century  devices  as  pushing  tunnels 
through  the  mud  of  the  river,  blasting  rocks  underneath  sky- 
scrapers, electric  third  rail  substituted  for  smoke  and  cinders, 
and  electric  operation  of  interlocking  switches,  the  correlation 
of  transportation  facilities  has  advanced  no  step  beyond  the 
primitive  relations  of  ferry  and  horse  car.  The  imperative 
need  of  municipal  supervision  of  all  railway  terminals  has 
never  been  more  eloquently  expressed.  No  engineering  or 
financial  ingenuity  can  conceal  the  incapacity  of  the  greatest 
railway  men  in  the  country  to  grasp  the  social  significance  of 
transportation. 

What  was  made  possible  in  Panama  by  complete  Federal 
control  can  be  achieved  in  New  York  by  the  municipality  alone. 

Chicago  Track  Elevation 

Chicago  is  the  greatest  railway  center  in  the  world.  One 
half  of  the  240,000  miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States  centers 
in  Chicago,  including  no  fewer  than  twenty-seven  trunk  lines. 
The  incredible  incapacity  of  railway  men  has  brought  these 
roads  in  from  three  points  of  the  compass,  yet  permitted  them 
to  cross  each  other  280  times.  The  topography  of  Chicago 
being  perfectly  flat  and  its  area  enormous,  it  has  had  the  great- 
est grade  crossing  problem  in  the  country.  In  1899  the  Federal 
Bureau  of  Labor  reported  that  Chicago  lost  more  people  at 
grade  crossings  than  the  seven  cities  next  in  size :  330,  as  com- 
pared with  306  for  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Boston,  Baltimore, 
Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  San  Francisco,  while  New  York  re- 
ported only  124.  In  the  seven  years  before  that  time  Chicago 
had  elevated  between  two  and  three  hundred  miles  of  track. 
Since  then  it  has  elevated  over  seven  hundred  more,  eliminating 
780  street  grade  crossings. 

Whether  Chicago  kills  people  or  saves  them,  it  does  it  by 
wholesale.     Chicago  is  not  niggardly. 

Track  elevation  in  Chicago  began  in  preparation  for  the 
World's  Fair  of  1893  with  the  elevation  of  the  lUinois  Central 
tracks,  which  pass  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan,  and  then  run  through  populous  residential 
districts.     The  exceptional  advantages  possessed  by  the  Illinois 


THE   CITY   PORTAL  19 

Central  Railway  as  the  one  company  with  direct  access  to  the 
World's  Fair  grounds  made  it  possible  for  the  city  to  compel 
the  elevation  of  its  tracks.  Twenty-eight  miles  of  all  tracks 
were  raised,  with  the  elimination  of  thirteen  grade  crossings 
at  a  cost  of  two  million  dollars.  This  work  was  projected  in 
May,  1892,  and  completed  in  time  for  the  World's  Fair.' 

In  1893  Chicago  put  its  best  foot  forward.  In  twenty  years 
its  labors  have  been  worthy  of  a  monster  centipede. 

Some  of  the  subsequent  projects  required  the  application  of 
exceptional  engineering  skill,  owing  to  the  planless  method  of 
approaching  the  city.  At  Sixteenth  and  Clark  streets  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  grade  crossings  was  ehminated,  with  equal 
gains  to  the  railways  and  the  city.  At  this  point  the  different 
lines  of  railway  crossed  each  other  and  the  street  at  three  dif- 
ferent angles.  The  result  of  the  improvement  has  been  that 
the  railways  now  cross  each  other  at  grade  at  one  crossing, 
while  some  of  the  tracks  are  depressed  under  others;  the 
street,  paralleling  one  system  of  tracks,  passes  over  the  second 
and  under  the  third.  This  complicated  problem,  involving  the 
elevation  of  less  than  a  mile  of  first  main  track  in  any  direction, 
cost  the  combined  companies  two  million  dollars.  Another 
engineering  triumph  was  at  Grand  Crossing,  where  four  steam 
railways  and  one  street  railway  crossed  at  grade.  Both  street 
and  grade  crossings  have  been  eliminated,  and  daily  six  hundred 
trains  now  cross  at  three  levels.  The  Pennsylvania,  Illinois 
Central,  and  New  York  Central  roads  have  each  been  taxed 
over  a  million  dollars,  and  the  Nickel  Plate  half  a  million  for 
this  improvement. 

"Safety  First"  might  have  been  the  slogan  for  these  magnifi- 
cent changes,  but  "service"  has  proved  a  close  second.  The 
roads  have  cut  their  running  time  to  some  suburbs  in  half. 

Nowhere  has  there  been  a  municipal  task  of  greater  per- 
plexity and  magnitude.  The  only  compensating  factors  have 
been  the  flatness  of  Chicago  and  the  abundance  of  sand  for 
filling.  Nearly  a  thousand  street,  alley  and  railway  subways 
have  been  constructed  by  a  great  variety  of  architectural  and 

1  The  next  important  piece  of  track  elevation  was  provided  for  by  ordinance  in 
July,  1894,  to  raise  the  tracks  of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  Railway 
Company,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  Railway  Company.  Forty- 
three  grade  crossings  were  eliminated  and  sixty  miles  of  track  were  elevated,  at  a 
cost  of  three  million  dollars.     .A.t  one  point  nineteen  parallel  tracks  were  raised. 


20  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

engineering  methods.  Over  a  thousand  miles  of  track  have 
been  elevated.  Over  a  score  of  railroads  have  been  active  for 
two  decades  in  achieving  this  colossal  enterprise.  The  city 
has  borne  the  expense  of  damages  to  abutting  property,  but  the 
railroads  have  paid  the  entire  expense  of  elevating  their  tracks, 
—  up  to  December  31,  1913,  seventy  million  dollars!  Half  of 
this  at  least  might  have  been  saved  had  the  railways  been  as 
scientific  as  the  municipality.  In  191 2  the  railways  crossed 
each  other  at  grade  239  times. 

Chicago's  effective  municipal  control  has  removed  the  deadly 
grade  crossing  at  the  expense  of  the  railways,  giving  them  in- 
cidentally speed  and  safety. 

Philadelphia  Track  Elevation 

Next  to  this  work  in  Chicago  the  most  important  is  doubtless 
that  done  in  Philadelphia.  The  first  track  elevation  there  was 
also  necessitated  by  a  large  exposition,  the  Centennial,  in  1876, 
when  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  undertook  to  penetrate  to 
the  heart  of  the  city  from  West  Philadelphia  by  a  substantial 
elevated  structure.  This  was  followed  some  years  after  by  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railway  carrying  its  lines  to  an 
equally  central  position ;  also  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railway  tunneling  the  city  for  a  considerable  distance ;  later 
by  the  subway  constructed  by  the  city  and  the  Philadelphia 
and  Reading  Railway  Company,  from  the  location  of  the  old 
station  at  Broad  and  Callowhill  streets  west  to  Fairmount 
Park ;  and  more  recently  by  the  elevating  of  the  tracks  of  the 
same  road  to  Wayne  Junction,  a  distance  of  more  than  four 
miles. 

The  Pennsylvania  Avenue  route  to  Fairmount  Park  testifies 
to  the  municipal  advantage  in  depressing  rather  than  elevating 
railway  tracks. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Pennsylvania  Avenue  subway 
the  street  has  been  boulevarded,  with  openings  for  ventilation 
at  intervals,  surrounded  by  a  rustic  masonry  wall,  on  which 
vines  have  been  planted,  and  around  this  wall  is  a  grass  plat 
six  feet  wide,  in  which  appropriate  shrubs  are  planted,  making 
an  ornament  to  the  driveway  while  furnishing  a  convenience 
to  the  tunnel.     The  avenue  is  120  feet  in  width,  with  sidewalks 


THE  CITY   PORTAL  21 

twenty  feet  wide,  having  six  feet  of  sod  and  also  planted  with 
selected  trees.  As  the  avenue  approaches  Fairmount  Park 
it  widens  into  a  plaza  opposite  the  Green  Street  entrance, 
where  the  Washington  Monument  is  located.  To  old  Phila- 
delphians  this  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  improvements  of 
the  city,  because  what  was  once  an  unsightly  railway  yard  is 
now  a  spacious  boulevard.  For  many  years  there  was  intense 
opposition  in  Philadelphia  to  providing  an  appropriate  road- 
way to  Fairmount  Park,  this  earliest  of  American  large  parks 
being  without  any  adequate  approach.  The  feeling  that  a 
boulevard  was  an  aristocratic  device  has  weakened  in  the  face 
of  the  bicycle  and  other  democratic  means  of  conveyance, 
and  there  is  no  less  appreciation  shown  to-day  for  the  beauty 
than  for  the  convenience  of  the  new  Pennsylvania  Avenue. 

Broad  Street,  Philadelphia's  Appian  Way,  has  thus  been 
preserved  as  a  great  unobstructed  artery,  the  pride  of  the  city. 

The  heart  of  Philadelphia  is  served  better  than  any  other 
metropoUtan  city.  It  is  now  proposed  to  clear  out  a  great 
southern  area  that  has  been  held  back  by  inferior  topography 
and  railway  obstruction.  Where  the  Schuylkill  and  Delaware 
rivers  meet,  there  is  a  vast  area  of  low-lying,  mosquito-infested 
ground  traversed  by  freight  roads,  beyond  which  is  the  Navy 
Yard  on  League  Island.  Philadelphia  is  thickly  settled  two 
or  three  times  as  far  to  the  north  of  its  business  area  as  to  the 
south.  By  the  relocation  of  freight  tracks,  the  extension  of  the 
Belt  Line  to  the  periphery,  and  the  elevation  of  tracks  where 
necessary,  several  square  miles  of  land  will  be  set  free  for  resi- 
dence and  industrial  development.  Incidentally,  Philadelphia 
will  municipalize  two  important  stretches  of  waterfront.  The 
opportunity  is  offered  for  a  better  planning  of  streets  than  the 
wasteful  gridiron  plan  of  Wilham  Penn,  that  originated  in 
Philadelphia.  The  area  will  ultimately  be  served  by  Phila- 
delphia's municipal  subway.  League  Island  Park,  at  the  foot 
of  Broad  Street,  the  climax  of  this  big  transportation  scheme, 
will  at  last  be  accessible. 

Philadelphia  is  doing  at  its  southernmost  extremity  what 
Chicago  has  been  unable  to  do  immediately  south  of  its  business 
district  —  clearing  out  needlesi  railway  yards  for  business  and 
life. 


22  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

Harbor  Improvements 

Australia  has  no  private  riparian  rights.  The  states  own 
sixty-six  feet  back  from  every  waterway.  In  this  country  we 
have  been  prodigal  in  giving  away  the  invaluable  water  fronts 
of  our  cities.  Nothing  indicates  better  the  accidental  character 
of  municipal  improvement  than  the  ownership  of  harbors  and 
docks.  The  contrast  between  San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans, 
that  own  virtually  all  of  their  water  fronts,  and  the  lake  cities, 
that  own  next  to  none,  is  instructive  if  not  inspiring.  The  de- 
pendence of  the  cities  on  the  Federal  Government  is  second 
only  to  their  dependence  on  private  capital.  Galveston,  which 
holds  such  a  proud  record  for  civic  courage,  owns  only  20  per 
cent  of  stock  in  one  of  its  dock  companies,  although  the  govern- 
ment has  spent  twenty  millions  improving  the  harbor  and 
maintaining  a  thirty-foot  channel.  Houston  is  pushing  Gal- 
veston, sharing  with  the  Federal  Government  the  two  and  one- 
half  millions'  cost  of  making  a  twenty-five  foot  channel  fifty 
miles  to  the  sea.  Houston  is  also  building  municipal  docks. 
Of  Philadelphia's  thirty-five  miles  of  water  front  the  city  owns 
13  per  cent  of  the  docks  and  the  Federal  Government  12  per 
cent.  The  city  and  the  state  have  spent  nine  millions  in  im- 
provement and  the  National  Government  eighteen  milHons, 
giving  Philadelphia  a  thirty-foot  channel.  The  Harbor  Com- 
missioners of  Oakland  are  trying  to  rival  San  Francisco,  and 
spent  nearly  three  millions  in  three  years  for  municipal  docks 
and  belt  railroad. 

The  key  to  transportation  is  the  control  of  terminal  facihties. 

There  is  no  geographical  monopoly  of  a  progressive  harbor 
policy.  San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans  lead.^  Baltimore's 
fire  spurred  the  citizens  to  many  forms  of  activity.  Nine 
millions  have  been  spent  for  wharfage  improvements,  giving 
the  municipality  five  miles  of  water  frontage  and  7500  feet  of 
docks,  including  a  great  commerce  and  recreation  pier.  New 
York  has  577  miles  of  water  front,  not  counting  the  Jersey 
shore.  The  city  owns  349  miles  and  the  Federal  Government 
ten  miles.  Of  the  805  wharves  the  city  owns  235.  The  in- 
come from  rented  piers  had  risen  from  $315,524  in  187 1  to 

'  Baltimore,  New  York,  Boston,  Los  Angeles,  Oakland,  Chicago,  and  Seattle 
follow. 


THE   CITY   PORTAL  23 

$4,772,885  in  1914.  Over  a  million  dollars  more  comes  in  from 
ferry  leases.  The  channel  is  40  feet  deep.  One  thousand  foot 
piers  are  being  constructed  north  of  the  present  transatlantic 
terminals,  condemning  land  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  river 
traffic.  In  spite  of  New  York's  recent  improvements,  wharfage 
has  increased  only  26  per  cent  while  commerce  has  increased 
93  per  cent. 

New  York,  haven  of  exploitation,  now  owns  half  of  its  water 
frontage. 

Boston  has  just  discovered  that  it  has  a  harbor  worthy  of 
competition  with  New  York.  The  Directors  of  the  Port  have 
been  created  and  empowered  to  spend  $9,000,000  at  once. 
The  largest  pier  in  the  world  has  been  constructed  —  the  Com- 
monwealth Pier,  1200  feet  long,  400  feet  wide  —  at  a  cost  of 
$3,500,000.  The  water  is  forty  feet  deep  at  low  tide.  A  new 
pier  in  East  Boston  is  being  built  at  a  cost  of  $1,750,000,  one 
at  Jeffries  Point  costing  $3,000,000,  and  the  same  amount  is 
being  spent  for  a  dry  dock  1200  feet  long. 

It  is  a  long  time  between  tea  parties,  but  Boston  has  a  new 
brand  of  hospitahty  and  can  accommodate  any  ship  afloat  or 
sighted.^ 

Davenport,  Iowa,  secured  a  special  charter  in  19 10  creating 
a  levee  commission  for  the  redemption  of  its  river  front  and 
the  construction  of  freight  terminals.  The  work  has  been  in 
progress  since  191 1.  More  than  a  mile  of  sea  wall  was  built 
in  the  first  three  years  and  twenty  acres  of  land  reclaimed. 
Twice  as  much  sea  wall  is  still  to  be  built,  when  141  acres  of 
land  will  be  redeemed  at  a  cost  of  $750,000.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  land  will  be  worth  $3,000,000.  The  bonds  will  be 
redeemed,  it  is  supposed,  within  twenty  years,  and  this  great 
contribution  to  river  shipping  will  be  secured  for  the  benefit 
of  Moline  and  Rock  Island,  as  well  as  Davenport,  without  any 
cost  to  the  taxpayers. 

The  most  spectacular  harbor  improvements  of  recent  years 
have  been  made  by  Los  Angeles  and  Seattle.  The  former  has 
acquired  a  harbor  21  miles  away,  annexing  it  by  a  narrow  strip 

•  Savannah  is  somewhat  like  Boston.  It  has  a  historic  harbor  and  owns  a  mile 
and  a  half  of  water  front,  but  only  303  feet  of  wharves.  Mobile  and  Memphis  do 
better  with  2000  feet.  St.  Louis  leads  the  northern  river  cities.  Minneapolis  is 
making  itself  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  in  defiance  of  St.  Paul  and 
Nature, 


24  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

of  land  incorporated  in  the  municipality.  The  latter  has  con- 
nected an  inland  lake  by  canal  with  Puget  Sound.  Los  Angeles 
has  now  over  23,000  feet  of  water  front  on  the  harbors  of  Wil- 
mington and  San  Pedro,  and  nearly  44,000  are  in  litigation.  In 
two  years  five  and  a  half  millions  in  bonds  have  been  issued. 
Seattle  is  adding  about  the  same  amount,  23,000  feet,  at  an 
expense  of  $6,300,000.  A  five  milUon  dollar  bond  issue  is 
being  used  to  condemn  112  acres  for  industrial  purposes.  A 
federal  ship  canal  of  30-feet  depth  is  being  constructed  at  a 
cost  of  four  milhon  dollars  to  connect  Lake  Washington  through 
Lake  Union  and  the  Duwamish  River  with  tidal  water.  Two 
fresh  water  harbors  are  being  added.  The  water  front  will  be 
increased  from  14  to  150  miles. ^ 

Cities  will  buy  back  their  own  water  fronts  as  they  are  re- 
covering their  streets. 

San  Francisco's  and  New  Orleans'  Water  Fronts 

Festive  San  Francisco  and  indolent  New  Orleans  share  the 
honor  of  having  the  best  dock  service  in  America.  San  Francisco 
Bay  has  a  shore  line  of  one  hundred  miles,  of  which  ten  miles 
(four  of  which  are  already  used  for  shipping)  are  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  latter  is  owned  by  the  State  of  California  and  ad- 
ministered by  the  State  Board  of  Harbor  Commissioners.  New 
Orleans  has  a  water  front  of  forty-one  miles,  all  of  which  except 
14,000  feet  is  owned  by  the  State  of  Louisiana  and  administered 
by  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of  New  Orleans. 
These  cities  are  thus  in  happy  contrast  with  most  Atlantic 
seaports  and  all  the  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  ports  of  San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans  are  the  most 
eloquent  answers  to  those  who  worship  the  fetish  of  private 
ownership. 

Since  1863  twenty- three  millions  have  been  spent  on  the 
harbor  of  San  Francisco,  the  greater  part  from  the  income  of 
the  docks.  The  latest  appropriations  have  been  nine  millions 
for  harbor  improvements  and  one  million  for  buying  tide  lands 
for  future  extensions.  About  twenty-five  acres  have  already 
been  redeemed  from  the  sea.     Wharves  are  leased  for  periods 

'  See  Appendix  i  for  details  of  Seattle's  municipal  harbor  expenditures. 


THE   CITY   PORTAL  2$ 

not  exceeding  fifteen  years,  the  lessee  paying  for  the  cost  of 
construction  in  advance.  There  are  now  in  process  of  erection 
eighteen  new  concrete  piers,  fireproof  and  rat  proof.  San 
Francisco  is  not  likely  to  be  menaced  by  the  bubonic  plague 
again.  The  legislature  has  been  asked  for  another  ten  millions 
for  future  developments. 

With  a  harbor  flushed  by  the  tides  San  Francisco  can  well 
afford  to  spend  state  money  on  permanent  improvements. 

The  New  Orleans  Port  Commission  took  over  the  public 
wharf  system  in  igoi.  The  Federal  Government  has  spent 
nearly  two  millions  protecting  the  levee.  In  recent  years  the 
community  has  issued  bonds  to  the  amount  of  three  and  a  half 
millions  for  harbor  improvements.  Only  six  wharves  are  pri- 
vately owned.  The  Board  controls  five  miles  of  wharfage  and 
three  and  a  half  miles  of  steel  sheds.  In  ten  years  the  earnings 
of  the  Port  have  doubled,  increasing  from  $215,000  in  1902  to 
$430,000  in  191 2. 

The  Gateway  to  Panama  is  well  lubricated. 
San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans  each  owns  a  belt  railroad 
connecting  its  docks  with  the  railways.  That  at  San  Francisco 
was  until  recently  operated  in  two  sections,  but  these  have  been 
united  and  connected  with  the  Panama  Exposition  site.  The 
New  Orleans  Belt  Railroad  runs  for  twelve  miles  along  the 
water  front,  joining  eight  trunk  lines  of  railway.  When  com- 
pleted it  will  circle  the  business  district  with  twenty-two  miles 
of  track.  It  is  already  making  a  satisfactory  profit.  It  not 
only  carries  freight  but  serves  the  citizens  by  collecting  garbage 
with  seventy-eight  garbage  cars  from  five  stations  along  the 
river.  The  garbage  is  carried  to  swamps  that  are  being  pre- 
pared for  agricultural  purposes.  The  dry  refuse  of  the  city  is 
similarly  handled  for  city  filling.  The  garbage  investment 
alone  represents  half  a  million  dollars. 

These  cities  not  only  direct  their  freight  traffic,  but  make  a 
profit  in  the  process. 

The  Harbor  Commission  in  San  Francisco  also  operates  the 
Union  Ferry  Station  that  has  the  largest  patronage  of  any 
terminal  in  America  —  forty  million  people  annually  coming 
from  the  various  suburbs  by  the  best  ferryboats  in  the  United 
States.  For  the  protection  of  the  water  front  the  Commission 
also  controls  a  street  150  feet  wide,  even  to  putting  sewers 


26  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

under  the  outer  half  of  it.  Private  ownership  by  a  terminal 
company  in  a  supine  city  like  St.  Louis  stifles  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  business  annually.  In  San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans 
public  ownership  of  the  water  fronts  and  belt  railways  points 
the  way  to  the  logical  solution  of  business  incompetence. 

Municipal  ownership  succeeds  in  direct  proportion  to  its 
magnitude. 

New  York's  Bridges 

The  bridges  across  the  Harlem  River  gave  the  only  land 
approach  to  Manhattan  Island  as  late  as  1882.  The  original 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  begun  in  1870,  was  opened  for  use  in  1883. 
The  congestion  of  its  traffic  rapidly  increased  to  unbearable 
proportions,  but  for  two  decades  it  had  no  competitor.  The 
evening  mob  at  the  New  York  City  Hall  became  a  byword  in 
the  transportation  world.  The  old  bridge  still  serves  more 
people  daily  than  any  other  approach  to  Manhattan,  but  its 
two  elevated  and  two  trolley  tracks  are  now  supplemented  by 
thirty-four  others.  In  1903  the  Williamsburg  Bridge  over  the 
East  River  was  opened  with  its  six  tracks.  There  have  now 
been  added  six  tracks  on  the  Queensborough  Bridge,  eight  on 
the  Manhattan  Bridge,  two  in  the  Brooklyn  subway,  four  in 
the  Long  Island  Railway  tunnels,  two  in  the  Belmont  tunnels 
to  Brooklyn,  and  the  six  tracks  under  the  Hudson  River  of  the 
McAdoo  and  Pennsylvania  systems. 

Local  transportation  is  solidifying  Greater  New  York  as 
transcontinental  railways  unified  America. 

The  old  Brooklyn  Bridge,  over  a  mile  long,  with  its  1600-foot 
river  span,  125  feet  above  the  water,  supported  by  its  majestic 
stone  piers  270  feet  high,  hangs  over  the  river  like  the  product  of 
primeval  spiders,  still  the  architectural  wonder  of  the  world. 
It  lends  dignity  to  the  splendid  stream  that  its  successors  only 
disfigure.  The  subsequent  bridges  represent  interesting  ex- 
periments in  engineering  and  architecture  as  well  as  indispensable 
supplements  to  a  hopelessly  overtaxed  bridge.  But  the  majesty 
of  the  river  is  marred.  The  Williamsburg  Bridge  —  first  aid 
to  the  overburdened  —  has  a  river  span  almost  identical  in 
length  with  that  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  Its  total  length  is 
much  greater  and  it  is  also  thirty-three  feet  wider  than  its 
predecessor.     Its    cost    was    less,    but    with    the    approaches 


THE   CITY    PORTAL  27 

amounted  to  twenty-two  millions  as  compared  with  fifteen 
millions  for  the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  The  Queensborough  Bridge 
across  Blackwell's  Island  to  Long  Island  City  is  a  gigantic 
cantilever  structure.  It  is  the  heaviest  and  perhaps  the  clum- 
siest bridge  of  its  kind  ever  built.  The  latest  of  the  East  River 
bridges  is  the  Manhattan  near  the  original  Brooklyn  Bridge. 
It  is  lighter  in  weight  and  appearance  than  the  others. 

New  York  has  learned  a  good  deal  about  bridge  building  after 
spending  ninety  or  a  hundred  million  dollars. 

The  last  two  East  River  bridges  cost  fifty  millions  and  yet 
there  was  no  provision  made  for  street  connections  or  trans- 
portation service  until  they  were  nearly  or  quite  completed. 
It  might  be  expected  that  expenditures  of  this  magnitude, 
spread  over  nearly  a  decade,  would  include  the  most  scientific 
planning  for  the  use  of  the  investment.  Not  only  was  there 
no  concerted  plan  made  for  a  comprehensive  rapid  transit 
system,  but  the  approaches  to  the  individual  bridges  were 
afterthoughts.  The  Blackwell's  Island  Bridge  also  failed  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  contract.  The  bridge  as  built 
was  able  to  carry  no  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  weight  con- 
tracted for.  It  weighed  25  per  cent  more  than  was  expected 
and  cost  a  million  more  than  the  contract  price. 

It  must  be  a  distinct  comfort  to  New  Yorkers  that  the  latest 
of  all  these  bridges,  the  Manhattan,  represents  a  partial  return 
to  sanity,  service  and  good  taste. 

The  offensive  overcrowding  of  the  old  Brooklyn  Bridge  is 
now  a  memory.  Each  year  there  is  a  better  distribution  of 
the  traffic.  Each  year  there  is  a  clearer  recognition  of  the  need 
of  new  and  better  forms  of  rapid  transit.  The  new  subways 
will  bring  still  greater  relief  to  both  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn. 
A  wider  distribution  will  come  from  the  addition  to  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railway's  service  of  the  new  bridge  or  viaduct,  three 
miles  long,  across  Hell  Gate  and  the  islands  of  the  East  River 
to  the  Bronx,  connecting  the  Long  Island  Railway  system  with 
the  New  Haven  Railway.  Now  there  is  serious  discussion  of 
a  monster  bridge  across  the  Hudson.  The  convenience  and 
economy  of  tunnels  and  their  superior  rapid  transit  service  do 
not  discourage  the  building  of  these  expensive  bridges  that 
tend  to  annihilate  the  physical  barriers  to  the  unity  of  the 
nation's   metropolis.     The   Henrik   Hudson   Memorial   Bridge 


28  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

over  Spuyten  Duyvil  Creek  must  now  be  added  to  those  beau- 
tiful embellishments  of  the  Harlem  River  —  the  High  Bridge 
of  stone  and  the  Washington  Bridge  of  iron — unrivaled  in 
their  respective  claims  to  beauty. 

The  last  word  in  bridge  making  in  New  York  is  that  service 
and  beauty  are  the  guarantees  of  economy. 

Concrete  Viaducts 

Nothing  has  added  more  to  the  architectural  embellishment 
of  cities  in  the  twentieth  century  than  the  substitution  of  con- 
crete viaducts  and  bridges  for  structures  of  iron  and  wood. 
They  have  all  the  beauty  of  plasticity  and  adaptation  to  func- 
tion of  plastic  architecture,  while  the  dull  color  has  a  back- 
ground to  throw  it  into  relief  which  is  not  always  true  of  build- 
ings. Highways  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other  are 
dotted  with  these  graceful  bridges.  American  municipalities 
have  entered  upon  an  era  of  viaduct  and  bridge  construction 
that  has  no  prototype  this  side  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

The  American  city  is  at  last  repeating  history  by  building  for 
posterity. 

These  structures  are  found  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the 
Pacific  and  from  the  upper  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  most  notable  is  the  Galveston  Causeway.  When  Gal- 
veston began  its  redemption  from  the  tidal  wave  it  had  to  have 
the  assistance  of  the  Federal  Government  in  building  a  sea  wall. 
It,  however,  cemented  its  relation  to  state  and  nation  by  build- 
ing a  concrete  causeway  four  miles  long,  at  a  cost  to  Galveston 
County  of  over  two  million  dollars.  Over  thirty-five  hundred 
feet  of  protected  roadway  projects  out  from  the  mainland  and 
over  fifty-five  hundred  feet  from  the  island,  connected  by  a 
hundred-foot  span  arch  bridge,  twenty-five  hundred  feet  long, 
with  a  drawbridge.  The  causeway  provides  for  two  steam 
railway  tracks,  one  trolley  track,  a  driveway  and  a  walk  for 
pedestrians. 

America  has  now  a  Giant  Causeway  to  rival  Ireland's. 

Texas  also  claims  the  next  great  viaduct  of  the  country,  that 
at  Dallas  being  over  a  mile  in  length.  It  connects  Dallas  with 
a  recently  incorporated  suburb,  Oak  Cliff.  It  passes  over  the 
Trinity  River  and  serves  as  part  of  the  boulevard  system  of 


THE   CITY   PORTAL  29 

the  metropolis  of  northern  Texas.  Six  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  long,  with  ornamental  balustrade,  brilliantly  lighted  at 
night,  this  utilitarian  viaduct  is  more  conspicuously  decorative 
than  any  public  building  in  the  city. 

Kansas  follows  Texas  in  pointing  the  way  to  the  East. 
Wichita  has  built  a  new  viaduct  more  than  a  third  of  a  mile 
long  to  carry  a  street  over  the  approaches  to  its  new  railway 
station.  Greater  Kansas  City  has  connected  its  Missouri  and 
Kansas  communities  by  a  beautiful  viaduct  over  the  Kaw 
River  valley.  It  leads  to  the  new  Union  Station  park,  making 
one  of  the  most  ambitious  city  entrances  in  America. 

These  cities  have  burned  their  old  bridges,  but  they  need 
not,  and  cannot,  burn  their  new  ones. 

Milwaukee  and  St.  Louis  have  built  rival  viaducts.  The 
Grand  Avenue  viaduct  is  a  part  of  the  comprehensive  boulevard 
system  of  Milwaukee,  —  a  two  thousand  foot  link  in  a  hundred 
mile  system.  The  Kingshighway  in  St.  Louis  is  carried  over 
a  series  of  railway  tracks  by  a  viaduct  a  third  of  a  mile  in  length. 

Pennsylvania  has  accepted  concrete  construction.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  private  bridge,  nearly  half  a  mile  in  length,  at  un- 
progressive  Allentown,  Harrisburg  has  in  the  Mulberry  Street 
Viaduct  a  beautiful  bridge,  1841  feet  long,  and  Reading's  Penn 
Street  Viaduct  is  1350  feet  in  length.  Reading  has  the  satis- 
faction of  having  borrowed  a  method  of  construction,  but  of 
using  her  own  talents  and  materials.  The  sand  came  five  miles 
from  the  city;  the  reenforced  iron  from  the  mills  of  Reading; 
and  the  rails  from  a  town  in  the  county.  Everybody  employed 
on  the  bridge,  except  the  consulting  engineer,  came  from 
Berks  County,  and  every  bondholder  is  a  resident. 

Back  to  the  west  we  must  go  for  the  most  beautiful  of  these 
concrete  bridges.  Pasadena  has  built  one  1460  feet  in  length 
over  the  Arroyo  Seco.  This  bridge  was  modeled  after  the 
Walnut  Lane  bridge  spanning  Wissahickon  Creek  in  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia.  Curving  across  the  ravine  its  graceful 
arches  make  a  vision  of  stalactite  beauty. 

Science  and  art  know  no  geographical  limits  and  are  abolish- 
ing physical  limitations.  Business  will  learn  economy  when 
citizens  and  public  officials  have  vision. 


CHAPTER  III 
MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION 

The  unregulated  competition  of  earlier  days  has  given  way 
to  unified  systems  of  street  railways.  A  satisfactory  trans- 
portation service  cannot  be  secured  by  competition.  Every 
section  of  the  city  must  be  connected  with  every  other  section 
and  with  the  suburbs.  While  no  city  has  correlated  all  of  its 
transportation  units,  some  have  consolidated  their  street  rail- 
way lines.  A  few  even  have  through  routes,  the  only  scientific 
way  to  serve  a  city.  The  inevitable  result  of  monopoly  has 
been  municipal  regulation.  In  the  case  of  New  York  (Brooklyn 
Bridge  railway),  San  Francisco,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  St. 
Louis  the  competition  of  municipal  lines  has  been  tried. 

Competition  is  antiquated,  but  has  been  forced  on  cities  by 
their  constitutional  limitations. 

The  competition  of  different  kinds  of  services  has  of  course 
continued.  Steam  railways  and  busses,  elevated  and  subway 
systems,  have  invaded  the  preserves  of  the  trolley  lines.  De- 
troit runs  auto  park  busses  across  the  bridge  and  around  Belle 
Isle  Park,  charging  a  three-cent  fare  in  summer  and  five  cents 
in  winter.^  A  new  competitor  of  the  trolley  has  appeared  in 
the  jitney.  Haughty  transportation  magnates  have  suddenly 
become  solicitous  for  the  public  weal.  Unwonted  courtesy  is 
shown  passengers  and  zeal  is  exhibited  to  make  the  streets 
safe.  MunicipaUties  have  found  it  difiicult  to  regulate  the 
jitney.  Although  it  has  made  serious  inroads  on  trolley  re- 
ceipts it  has  not  demonstrated  its  permanence.  Hard  times, 
an  abundance  of  second-hand  autos,  and  the  arrogance  of 
street  railway  magnates  have  produced  epidemics  of  jitneyitis 
all  over  the  country. 

1  Over  600,000  passengers  in  igi3  crossed  the  bridge  and  16,000  rode  around  the 
park.  Nearly  45,000  park  employees  paid  only  one  cent.  Yet  the  entire  enter- 
prise pays  for  itself. 

30 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  31 

A  valid  objection  to  the  jitney  is  that  it  duplicates  the  trolley 
and  gives  no  new  service.  The  trackless  car  ought  to  be  a 
feeder  to  the  tramway.  The  jitney  originated  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  but  500  of  them  are  said  to  have  invaded  Providence. 
An  unsympathetic  public,  long  scorned  by  the  New  Haven 
Railway  (that  runs  the  local  trolley  system),  listens  with  un- 
concern to  the  tale  of  money  invested  in  a  new  tunnel  and 
new  cars,  in  addition  to  a  heavy  franchise  tax.  The  Exposition 
cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast  are  reveling  in  the  new  form  of  cheap 
transportation,  but  suffering  from  the  inevitable  accidents.^ 

Even  if  the  advent  of  the  jitney  is  only  a  flurry,  it  is  the  latest 
argument  for  complete  municipal  control. 

The  Gigantic  Volume  of  Urban  Transportation 

The  Swat  the  Fly  crusade  has  been  stimulated  by  the  paralyz- 
ing statistics  of  reproduction  of  the  agile,  vernal  fly.  No  one 
pretends  to  understand  what  a  billion  or  a  trillion  is,  but  it  is 
the  patent  duty  of  the  good  citizen  to  swat  and  swat  early ! 
The  enlightened  citizen  feels  as  the  transportation  magnate 
must  who  considers  the  aggregate  volume  of  passenger  travel 
on  urban  railways.  In  1902  the  street  railways  of  the  United 
States  carried  5,836,615,296  passengers.  By  1907  this  number 
had  increased  63  per  cent  to  9,533,080,766.  The  street  cars  in 
1907  traveled  over  a  billion  and  a  half  of  miles.  These  figures 
are  made  slightly  intelligible  by  counting  up  how  many  pas- 
sengers ought  to  be  carried  if  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  our 
cities  made  two  trips  a  day :  namely,  about  ten  thousand  million  ! 

Meanwhile  it  is  the  privilege  of  the  transportation  magnate 
to  swat. 

The  surface  and  elevated  roads  of  New  York  City  carry  more 
passengers  yearly   than   travel  on  all   the   steam  railways  of 

*  The  jitneys  of  Nashville  pay  $240  to  city  and  state  for  their  annual  licenses. 
Fort  Worth  imposes  liability  insurance  and  a  limitation  on  the  number  of  passen- 
gers. Denver  requires  a  franchise  from  the  city  with  a  maximum  fine  of  $300  for 
neglect  or  ninety  days  imprisonment.  Oakland  and  Ogden  demand  a  bond  of 
$10,000.  Oakland  has  been  a  pioneer  in  accepting  as  well  as  regulating  the  jitney. 
Routes  are  specified,  but  jitneys  are  allowed  to  meet  exceptional  demands  beyond 
their  routes,  such  as  taking  children  to  and  from  school,  meeting  trains,  or  serving 
special  gatherings  of  people.  Oklahoma  City  prohibits  the  jitneys  from  operating 
their  cars  "longitudinally"  on  any  street  occupied  by  a  street  railway,  thus  putting 
the  busses  out  of  business. 


32  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

North  and  South  America,  including  suburban,  long  distance 
and  transcontinental  travel  from  the  Grand  Central  Station 
of  New  York  to  the  Union  Ferry  Station  of  San  Francisco, 
and  from  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  of  Canada  to  the  Chilean- 
Argentine  system.  In  1913  the  New  York  City  surface,  sub- 
way and  elevated  systems  carried  1,769,889,284  passengers 
who  paid  their  nickels.  Chicago  carried  over  three-quarters 
of  a  billion  people  on  its  surface  and  elevated  railways,  Phila- 
delphia over  five  hundred  million  and  Boston  nearly  four 
hundred  million.  Cleveland's  three-cent  fare  induced  over 
two  hundred  miUion  passengers  to  use  the  cars  in  191 2. 

While  the  citizen  is  grateful  for  these  huge  enterprises  the  mag- 
nates, in  the  absence  of  municipal  ownership,  continue  to  swat. 

What  may  puzzle  the  careless  citizen  is  that  the  great  railway 
stations  of  New  York  do  not  send  out  and  receive  so  many 
trains  or  passengers  as  other  terminals.  The  North  and  South 
Stations  of  Boston  are  each  ahead  of  the  Grand  Central  Station 
in  New  York.  The  Union  Ferry  Station  in  San  Francisco 
handles  forty  million  people  a  year.  That  is  a  million  and  a 
half  more  than  Boston's  busy  South  Station,  with  all  its  summer 
traffic.  These  figures,  however,  are  chiefly  due  to  the  enormous 
suburban  travel.  Boston  and  San  Francisco  are  the  only  cities 
in  the  country  that  have  more  people  Uving  in  the  suburbs  than 
in  the  city. 

Chicago's  steam  railways  are  2I  times  as  extensive  in  the  city 
limits  as  the  elevated  railways,  but  carry  only  one-fourth  as 
many  passengers. 

People  and  goods  travel  where  they  must.  Sometimes  a 
far-sighted  railway  promoter  like  Collis  P.  Huntington  or 
James  B.  Hill  may  anticipate  the  development  of  an  unsettled 
region.  People  must  be  grateful  to  them  even  though  their 
rewards  are  excessive.  Generally,  however,  transportation 
follows  population.  There  is  no  such  secure  investment  as 
transportation  in  a  growing  city.  Why  should  these  assured 
revenues  be  guaranteed  to  the  lucky  investors  while  the  people 
who  create  these  values  must  still  support  all  the  unremunera- 
tive  enterprises?  In  191 2  the  elementary  schools  of  American 
cities  cost  the  citizens  $110,000,000.  Five  years  earlier  the 
street  railways  of  those  same  cities  earned  a  net  profit  of 
$138,000,000. 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  33 

Urban  transportation  is  our  safest  investment.  Cities  own 
the  unprofitable  activities.  What  is  the  answer?  The  fly  will 
turn. 

Boston's  Subway  System 

Boston  is  a  city  of  three-quarters  of  a  miUion  people,  sur- 
rounded by  suburbs  containing  a  still  larger  population.  In 
every  direction  in  and  out  of  Boston  stretch  populous  areas 
along  irregular  hnes  of  travel  initiated  years,  even  centuries, 
ago.  Nearly  forty  municipaUties  independent  in  government, 
if  not  in  interests,  are  bound  together  primarily  by  a  trans- 
portation system.  Boston  was  the  first  metropolitan  city  to 
investigate  its  transportation  needs  and  apply  a  comprehensive 
remedy.  A  Rapid  Transit  Commission,  authorized  by  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1891,  issued  its  report  in  1892. 
The  report  set  out  where  the  people  lived,  how  they  traveled, 
how  their  goods  were  carried,  what  they  paid  and  what  had  to 
be  done  to  utilize  to  best  advantage  street  railway,  steam  rail- 
way and  harbor  facilities  by  correlating  surface,  underground 
and  overhead  systems.^ 

It  used  to  be  said  that  in  spite  of  crooked  streets  it  was  no 
trouble  for  a  stranger  to  get  around  Boston ;  his  difficulty  was 
to  get  across. 

The  Rapid  Transit  report  showed  that  while  Boston's  traffic 
was  doubling  every  decade,  the  street  cars  at  the  rush  hours 
moved  in  unbroken  procession  down  its  main  street.  It  was  a 
spectacular  act  to  take  the  cars  entirely  off  of  that  street  and 
put  them  in  a  subway,  although  the  railway  company  held 

»  According  to  the  report,  "  One  hundred  years  ago  Boston  contained  eighteen 
hundred  people,  and  its  narrow  lanes  wound  in  and  out  among  its  hills  as  individual 
fancy  or  the  configuration  of  the  ground  dictated.  The  ten-mile  circle  around  it 
may  have  held  half  as  many  more  who  carried  on  what  little  traffic  existed  with  the 
town  over  a  single  highway  along  the  Neck  or  across  the  water  in  boats.  Fifty 
years  later  the  same  territory  which  originally  constituted  old  Boston,  boasted  a 
population  of  nearly  one  hundred  thousand,  and  within  a  radius  of  ten  miles  from 
the  Old  State  House  clustered  one  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  inhabitants.  .  .  . 
In  the  year  ending  September  30,  187 1,  the  steam  railroads  brought  into  and  car- 
ried out  of  Boston  seventeen  million  passengers.  In  the  year  which  closed  June  30, 
189 1,  the  volume  had  swollen  to  fifty-one  millions.  The  travel  had  doubled  in 
ten  years.  Similar  extracts  from  the  street  railway  statistics  show  that  in^  the 
year  1881  the  street  railways  within  the  ten-mile  limit  carried  sixty-eight  millions, 
and  in  1891  they  reached  the  grand  total  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  millions. 
In  other  words,  the  traffic  doubles  in  each  decade." 


34  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

the  belated  idea  that  an  elevated  structure  might  be  erected  in 
Tremont  Street.  Yet  the  service  of  the  subway  in  focusing 
the  traffic  of  the  city  was  infinitely  more  important  than  the 
dramatic  clearing  of  Tremont  Street.  A  new  device  in  rapid 
transit  was  introduced  when  surface  cars  and  elevated  trains 
from  the  four  points  of  the  compass  tunneled  their  way  under 
the  shopping  district  of  Boston.  An  inestimable  social  service 
was  performed  when  the  building  of  the  subway  by  the  city 
signalized  the  control  of  all  transportation  services  by  the 
public  ownership  of  the  strategic  link. 

The  municipal  ownership  of  Boston's  subway  system  is  a 
contribution  to  the  art  of  public  control  as  important  as  the 
subway  is  to  the  science  of  transportation. 

The  Rapid  Transit  Commission  brought  the  steam  railways 
of  Boston  together  in  two  union  stations,  connected  by  an 
elevated  railway  running  along  the  chief  water  frontage  of  the 
city.  It  revised  the  routes  of  the  street  railway  lines  to  give  a 
universal  transfer  system  throughout  Boston  for  a  five-cent 
fare.  It  built  the  subway  under  the  Common,  the  Public 
Gardens  and  the  busiest  part  of  Boston.  It  provided  for 
elevated  railways  and  a  tunnel  to  connect  Boston's  most  con- 
gested areas.  The  connecting  link  in  this  system  was  the 
Tremont  Street  subway  a  mile  and  a  half  long.  One  year  after 
it  was  opened  one  out  of  four  of  the  two  hundred  million  pas- 
sengers used  this  little  Hnk  that  constituted  only  one-eightieth 
of  Boston's  trackage.  The  speed  of  the  Tremont  Street  cars 
was  increased  from  two  miles  an  hour  to  seven  or  eight.  The 
chief  limitation  to  rapid  transit  —  congestion  in  the  heart  of 
the  city  — had  been  most  successfully  attacked  in  Boston. 
The  subsequent  congestion  of  the  subway  was  due  to  growth 
of  population  and  the  undue  influence  of  Tremont  and  Wash- 
ington street  merchants. 

Municipal  ownership  scored  another  triumph  when  the  sub- 
way cost  nearly  a  million  dollars  less  than  the  appropriation ! 

Boston's  Subway  Extensions 

Boston  not  only  has  been  growing  as  rapidly  as  other  cities ; 
its  suburbs  have  been  growing  more  rapidly  than  those  of  any 
city   except   San   Francisco.     Since   the   opening   of   the   first 


Courtesy  of  the  Hccla-Wlnslow  Co. 

Boston  Library  Subway  Entrance. 


Courtesy  of  Boston  Transit  Commission. 

Boston  Subway  Station. 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY    REGULATION  35 

Boston  subway  in  1897  the  system  has  been  developed  with 
arms  ramifying  in  all  directions.  Each  addition  to  the  trans- 
portation system  has  provided  momentary  relief,  which  has 
encouraged  travel  so  that  congestion  soon  demanded  still  other 
extensions.  The  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  million  passengers 
of  1891  grew  to  two  hundred  and  twenty-two  million  in  1902 
and  two  hundred  and  seventy-one  million  in  1907.  The  Tre- 
mont  Street  subway  was  soon  overtaxed,  while  the  parallel 
business  thoroughfare,  Washington  Street,  became  intolerably 
congested.  The  first  subway  was  supplemented  in  turn  by 
the  Washington  Street  tunnel  (relieving  the  Tremont  Street 
subway  of  the  elevated  trains)  and  the  Cambridge  subway  with 
its  own  trains  to  the  adjoining  city  on  the  north.  East  Boston 
had  been  connected  by  a  tunnel  supplementing  the  municipal 
ferries,  so  Dorchester,  to  the  south,  clamored  for  equal  pro- 
vision. Each  set  of  Rapid  Transit  Commissioners  has  seriously 
endeavored  to  add  a  link  to  a  comprehensive  solution  of  the 
rapid  transit  problem  in  Boston. 

A  modern  transportation  system  is  one  that  connects  every 
part  of  the  urban  district  with  every  other  part  by  rapid  transit. 

Municipal  ownership  was  not  secured  without  vigorous  agita- 
tion and  has  not  been  continued  without  vigilance.  In  1902  the 
Elevated  Railway  Company,  the  lessee  of  the  subway,  en- 
deavored to  substitute  private  for  public  ownership  of  the  next 
extension.  The  methods  of  influencing  the  legislature  and 
public  opinion  were  not  such  as  to  commend  the  company  to 
the  pubHc.  When  the  latest  extensions  were  proposed  in  191 1 
the  company  again  wanted  to  lessen  municipal  authority,  but 
by  a  compromise  all  leases  of  old  and  new  subways  were  made 
to  terminate  in  1936  ;  the  public  is  to  receive  4^  per  cent  rental 
while  the  leases  last ;  and  municipal  operation  is  made  ultimately 
feasible. 

The  municipal  ownership  of  the  Boston  subway  has  been 
profitable  to  the  city,  not  burdensome  to  the  operating  com- 
pany, and  represents  the  least  a  city  can  do  that  protects  its 
streets  for  the  people. 

The  total  investment  to  June  30,  1913,  in  publicly  constructed 
and  owned  subways  in  Boston,  is  twenty-two  million  dollars. 
The  subways  (with  the  exception  of  the  Cambridge  tunnel) 
are  all  in  an  area  not  over  two  miles  square.     They  focus  trans- 


36  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

portation  coming  from  all  directions  and  reaching  the  subways 
by  a  dozen  entrances.  Transfer  for  a  single  fare  from  every 
part  of  the  city  to  every  other  part  under  shelter  is  thus  made 
possible. 

Boston  now  owns  a  twenty-six  million  dollar  subway  system 
by  which  it  controls  an  eighty-two  million  dollar  transportation 
system ;  New  York  fifty  years  hence  may  own  a  two  hundred 
million  dollar  subway  by  which  it  promises  to  control  nothing. 

New  York's  enormous  investment  in  subways  represents 
some  genuine  and  invaluable  rapid  transit  service  and  ultimate 
municipal  ownership.  But  it  is  unrelated  to  the  other  trans- 
portation systems  of  the  city  and  does  not  even  connect  the 
railway  stations.  Chicago  receives  55  per  cent  of  the  net 
revenue  of  the  street  railway  company  to  be  set  aside  for  the 
construction  of  a  municipal  subway  system,  like  that  of  Boston. 
Philadelphia,  the  ingenue  of  cities,  has  a  privately  owned  sub- 
way under  one  of  its  streets,  having  no  connection  with  a  com- 
prehensive transportation  system.  Philadelphia  is  invited 
now  to  finance  for  lease  to  a  private  company  a  subway  system 
which  will  return  to  the  city  any  revenues  over  6  per  cent  on 
the  company's  investment  after  the  company  has  been  reim- 
bursed for  present  and  potential  losses  due  to  pubUc  competition. 
Pittsburgh,  also  in  Pennsylvania,  with  the  worst  transportation 
service  in  the  country,  can  gain  control  of  the  system  only  by 
building  a  municipal  subway,  which  is  physically  more  impera- 
tive and  feasible  in  that  city  than  in  any  other  except  New 
York.i 

A  subway  is  indispensable  to  rapid  transit  in  a  metropolitan 
city ;  municipal  ownership  is  the  logical  method  of  control  be- 
cause the  easiest  method  of  directing  the  whole  transportation 
service.     See  Boston  first ! 

New  York's  First  Subway 

New  York  City  presents  the  pons  asinorum  of  all  American 
communities,  because  of  the  great  congestion  of  population 
due  to  Manhattan's  insularity.     Many  an  asses'  bridge  was 

'  Cleveland.  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles  are  all  facing  municipal 
subway  construction. 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  37 

built  before  New  York  learned  how  to  cross  the  river  without 
going  near  the  water.  In  consequence  New  York  has  a  very 
imperfect  system  of  urban  transportation.  The  railway  stations 
and  ferries  are  difficult  of  access,  and  not  even  coordinated  by 
the  surface  railway  systems.  After  waiting  for  years  for  the 
installation  of  more  rapid  communication  by  elevated  systems, 
these  became,  by  the  persistence  of  the  use  of  steam,  nearly  as 
belated  as  the  cross-town  horse  cars.  After  surrendering  valu- 
able privileges  for  little  or  no  remuneration,  the  city  retained 
no  power  for  the  compulsion  of  better  service.  After  waiting 
for  the  installation  of  a  cable  railway  it  was  constructed  when 
it  had  elsewhere  become  antiquated.  After  attaining  archeo- 
logical  supremacy  New  York  has  recently  introduced  improve- 
ments of  great  individual  consequence,  though  unfortunately 
still  without  coordination.  The  Brooklyn  Bridge  Railway 
furnished  for  a  time  the  one  example  of  a  municipally  owned 
railway  in  the  country.  The  lease  of  this  railway  to  the  Brooklyn 
Company,  in  order  to  substitute  New  York  for  Brooklyn  ter- 
minals marked  the  beginning  of  the  penetration  of  the  lines  of 
other  boroughs  into  Manhattan,  and  the  substitution  of  through 
for  radial  routes. 

There  can  be  no  satisfactory  rapid  transit  while  downtown 
streets  are  used  for  switching  cars. 

Motor  omnibuses  are  running  on  Fifth  Avenue.  Compressed 
air  cars  have  supplanted  horse  cars  on  Twenty-eighth  and 
Twenty-ninth  streets.  The  great  trunk  Hnes  of  Manhattan 
are  now  operated  by  the  underground  electric  conduit,  the  best 
form  of  surface  transportation  as  yet  devised  in  this  country. 
The  fact  that  the  overhead  trolley  should  be  unknown  on 
Manhattan  Island  is  so  notable  an  advance  as  to  neutralize 
somewhat  the  primitive  forms  of  transportation  still  persisting 
there.  The  latest  of  New  York's  improvements,  still  in  process 
of  construction,  are  the  subway  and  tunnel  systems.  In  the 
face  of  Tammany's  mismanagement  the  final  decision  to  have 
municipal  ownership  of  the  subway  speaks  volumes  for  the 
education  of  public  opinion  in  the  land  of  Boss  Tweed,  though 
the  method  of  control  by  surrendering  all  rights  to  a  private 
construction  company  for  fifty  years,  is  inferior  to  the  method 
of  Boston,  and  unfortunate  after  the  encouraging  experience  of 
that  city.  ^ 


38  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

The  subway  jest  about  being  able  to  go  to  Brooklyn  without 
being  seen  represents  quite  seriously  the  length  of  vision  of  the 
Tammany-ruled  New  Yorker.  Boston  is  even  more  remote 
than  Brooklyn. 

Jacob  Riis  said  that  it  takes  ten  years  to  do  anything  in 
New  York.  This  has  proved  to  be  true  not  only  of  playgrounds, 
but  of  subways.  In  1891  the  city  secured  the  rapid  transit 
investigation.  In  1901  the  construction  of  the  subway  was 
begun.  In  the  interval  municipal  ownership  sentiment  had 
been  stirred  up  so  effectually  that  the  authorities  could  not 
quite  give  away  the  subsurface  as  they  had  the  surface  of  their 
streets.  Fifty  millions  of  bonds  were  issued  on  the  city's 
credit  at  3§  per  cent  to  build  the  original  subway,  that  in  turn 
was  leased  to  the  contractor  for  fifty  years,  with  a  possible 
extension  for  twenty-five  more.  On  its  tenth  anniversary  the 
rental  of  the  subway  had  brought  New  York  twenty  million 
dollars.  At  the  expiration  of  the  lease  the  subway  will  be  paid 
for  and  belong  to  New  York.  The  main  line  tunnels  from  the 
Battery  to  Harlem  were  completed  in  1904  and  the  Brooklyn 
extension  in  1908. 

There  were  skeptics,  but  they  were  answered  when  a  subway 
built  for  four  hundred  thousand  passengers  a  day  often  carried 
a  million. 

Before  the  operation  of  the  subway  the  elevated  roads  carried 
about  half  as  many  passengers  as  the  surface  lines.  Three 
years  after  the  opening  of  the  subway  the  rapid  transit  pas- 
sengers in  it  and  on  the  elevated  roads  outnumbered  those  who 
used  the  surface  cars.  The  virtue  of  rapid  transit  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  75  per  cent  more  people  were  carried  on  the 
elevated  per  mile  of  track  than  on  the  surface  lines.  Within 
three  years  of  the  opening  of  the  subway,  before  the  Brooklyn 
extension  was  put  into  operation,  nearly  three  times  as  many 
people  per  mile  of  track  were  carried  by  rapid  transit  as  on  the 
surface.  Rapid  transit  lines  not  only  carry  more  people  now 
than  the  surface  cars,  but  they  carry  the  average  passenger 
farther. 

Rapid  transit  relieves  congestion.  If  the  surface  lines  were 
owned  by  the  city  and  run  as  feeders  to  municipal  rapid  transit 
lines,  municipal  ownership  could  transform  the  slums. 


MUNICIPAL    RAILWAY   REGULATION  39 

Rapid  Transit  in  New  York 

New  York's  millions  can  now  cross  the  East  River  dry-shod 
but  they  still  have  forty  years  before  them  in  the  wilderness. 
So  successful  has  been  the  subway  in  annihilating  distance  and 
topography  that  it  determines  the  future  of  rapid  transit  in 
New  York.  The  Tnterborough  Company,  lessee  of  the  first 
subway,  bought  the  Manhattan  Elevated  lines,  but  that  does 
not  correlate  the  transportation  systems  of  Manhattan  alone. 
When  the  question  of  extending  rapid  transit  arose  the  two 
great  issues  were :  continuity  of  service  among  the  different 
boroughs  of  New  York  and  a  satisfactory  return  to  the  city  for 
its  investment.  Unification  is  still  a  dream.  After  years  of 
dispute,  a  compromise  was  reached  in  1913  providing  for  a  dual 
system  giving  the  Manhattan  Company  extensions  in  Brooklyn 
and  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company  extensions  in  Man- 
hattan. The  old  subway  is  twenty-six  miles  in  length  with 
eighty-one  miles  of  track.  The  dual  system  contracts  call  for 
forty-four  and  a  half  miles  of  new  subway  with  two  hundred 
and  fifty-seven  miles  of  track  and  fifty-three  miles  of  new  ele- 
vated road  having  seventy-seven  miles  of  track. 

Greater  New  York's  rapid  transit  lines  in  process  of  construction 
are  longer  than  the  old,  but  the  Promised  Land  is  not  in  sight. 

The  old  subway  cost  fifty  millions ;  the  new  subway  will 
cost  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  millions.  The  present 
rapid  transit  system  covering  all  the  boroughs  but  Staten 
Island  cost  $250,000,000  and  accommodates  eight  hundred 
million  passengers  a  year.  The  new  systems,  including  the 
full  use  of  New  York's  neglected  bridges,  will  provide  for  two 
thousand  million  passengers  —  more  than  now  travel  on  all 
the  hnes  of  New  York.  The  cost  of  these  improvements  will 
mount  up  to  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions,  exclusive 
of  the  cost  of  the  bridges.  The  city's  needs  far  outran  its 
resources,  so  it  was  necessary  to  go  into  partnership  with  private 
capital  to  build  the  new  subways.  It  was  also  imperative  to 
begin  to  link  together  the  unassembled  systems  of  rapid  transit 
in  New  York.  Likewise  it  was  desirable  to  gather  up  existing 
and  projected  franchises  that  they  might  terminate  at  the  same 
time.  Then,  too,  municipal  ownership  must  be  made  more 
feasible  if  possible. 


40  .\MERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

At  a  cost  of  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  million  dollars 
New  York  moves  a  halting  step  or  two  toward  the  control  of 
urban  transportation. 

The  dual  plan  utilizes  existing  elevated  railways  and  bridges 
that  have  hitherto  been  operated  wastefully.  It  threatens  the 
tyranny  of  the  north  and  south  travel  on  Manhattan  Island. 
It  extends  the  range  of  rapid  transit  for  five  cents  so  as  to  cover 
Brooklyn  and  give  much  longer  rides  in  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx.  The  city  can,  for  the  first  time,  command  extensions. 
The  city  is  to  own  the  lines  after  construction  and  may  recover 
the  operation  of  them  at  any  time  after  ten  years.  This  privi- 
lege includes  the  right  to  operate  them.  The  dual  system  will 
not  be  entirely  paid  for  when  the  franchises  expire,  but  com- 
plete municipal  ownership  is  not  impossible  if  the  city  is  allowed 
to  revise  its  taxation  system. 

New  York  has  moved  a  long  way  since  the  Egyptian  days  of 
999  year  and  perpetual  franchises. 

The  city  is  not  yet  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  paying  for 
exorbitant  franchise  values  of  depreciated  companies.  It  still 
is  customary  to  pay  fabulous  brokerage  charges  for  improve- 
ments made  by  the  city  with  city  money.  The  tax  on  the  city's 
resources  to  provide  rapid  transit  is  so  great  as  to  restrict  other 
needed  improvements.  The  unearned  income  from  the  auto- 
matic increase  of  the  patronage  of  rapid  transit  lines  is  added 
to  the  unearned  increment  of  land  values  going  into  private 
pockets.  New  York  is  still  bending  its  energies,  its  capital 
and  its  wits  to  overtaking  earher  blunders.  The  future  is  stiU 
being  mortgaged.  Recent  court  decisions  make  the  surface 
lines  more  chaotic  than  in  a  generation.  New  York  is  develop- 
ing the  most  expensive  rapid  transit  system  in  the  world,  under 
public  control,  with  municipal  ownership  of  rapid  transit  in  the 
dim  distance. 

Nothing  but  complete  municipal  ownership  can  give  New 
York  a  scientific  transportation  system.  New  York  ought  to 
have  no  trouble  in  finding  a  Moses ! 

Subterranean  Chicago 

The  windy  city  voted  by  referendum  of  the  people  in  the 
spring  of  1914  to  "travel  in  the  sunshine."    The  citizens  of 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY  REGULATION  41 

the  city  of  superabundant  soot  were  impressed  by  the  arguments 
used  against  a  proposed  subway  system.  Whether  the  fabric 
of  the  arguments  was  sunshine  or  moonshine  remains  to  be 
seen.  The  particular  subway  proposals  seem  to  have  been  un- 
wise. Chicago  is  accumulating  a  fund  under  its  new  street 
railway  franchises  that  is  supposed  to  make  a  subway  system 
easy  and  economical.  George  E.  Hooker  has  published  a  con- 
vincing defense  of  Bion  J.  Arnold's  proposed  rapid  transit  use 
of  Chicago's  superfluous  steam  railway  tracks.  However,  Chi- 
cago has  had  experience  with  subterranean  methods  that 
ought  to  enlighten  it  regarding  the  importance  of  municipal 
control. 

Years  of  subterranean  tactics  in  Chicago's  city  council  have 
failed  to  produce  a  passenger  subway. 

The  successful  trolley  systems  of  the  anthracite  coal  mines 
suggested  to  some  brilliant  promoters  the  idea  of  a  freight  tunnel 
system  under  the  congested  streets  of  Chicago.  A  franchise 
was  secured  for  the  construction  of  a  system  of  tunnels  which 
should  be  used  for  the  transmission  of  "sounds,  signals  and 
intelligence  by  means  of  electricity  or  otherwise."  According 
to  the  leading  scientific  publication  of  America,  "the  work 
was  begun  in  a  very  unostentatious  manner."  In  fact,  the  city 
council  supposed  it  was  issuing  a  franchise  for  the  building  of  a 
telephone  conduit.  The  work  was  conducted  so  unobtrusively 
that  three  little  openings  sufficed  to  extract  the  superfluous 
earth  which  was  carted  away  at  night.  Chicago  waked  up  one 
morning  to  find  twenty  miles  of  freight  tunnels  under  its  feet, 
authorized  by  a  misleading  franchise  granted  in  the  middle  of 
the  night. 

Even  subterranean  transportation  faciUties  ought  to  be  de- 
vised in  the  light  of  day. 

"The  transmission  of  intelligence"  by  other  methods  than 
electricity  had  beguiled  the  city  council  of  Chicago  into  granting 
a  privilege  so  elastic  that  it  not  only  permitted  an  automatic 
telephone  system  to  be  inaugurated,  but  freight  tunnels  twelve 
feet  high  to  be  built.  "Sounds  and  signals"  have  actually 
been  transmitted  in  these  "conduits"  where  freight  cars  have 
also  been  transported.  The  automatic  telephone  system  has 
been  merely  a  sand-bagging  device  over  the  telephone  monopoly, 
but  the  freight  system  has  become  a  great  convenience,  a 


42  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

startling  scientific  achievement.  Seventy  miles  of  tunnels 
now  honeycomb  Chicago's  subsoil.  Every  freight  depot  is 
connected ;  the  post  office  is  served ;  and  most  of  the  great 
warehouses  and  commercial  buildings  have  direct  service.  One 
hundred  thousand  tons  of  freight  carted  through  Chicago's 
streets  may  be  ehminated ;  troublesome  strikes  of  truck  drivers 
may  become  fading  memories ;  five  times  as  much  material  is 
being  carted  away  from  basements  as  teams  could  handle;  an 
elevated  freight  terminal  covering  eleven  city  blocks  is  con- 
nected by  elevators  with  the  tunnel  system ;  the  tunnels  ex- 
pedite the  parcels  post  as  the  pneumatic  tubes  do  letters. 

The  subterranean  distribution  of  freight  in  Chicago  is  a 
triumphant  success. 

The  franchise  for  "the  transmission  of  intelligence  by  elec- 
tricity or  otherwise"  provided  that  the  floor  of  the  tunnel 
should  be  forty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  street.  Therein 
municipal  ownership  is  proved  to  be  indispensable  for  every 
activity  that  affects  public  property.  The  projected  height  of 
the  tunnels  —  seven  and  one-half  feet  —  left  sufficient  space 
below  the  street  level  for  a  double-decked  passenger  subway. 
The  twelve-foot  trunk  tunnel  compels  the  paradox  of  a  passenger 
subway  system  built  in  part  above  the  surface  of  the  street, 
if  Chicago  is  to  avoid  grade  crossings  in  its  subways.  Chicago, 
which  has  dallied  too  long  with  its  subway  problem,  now  finds 
itself  hampered  by  the  secret  rather  than  sinister  appropriation 
of  its  subterranean  space.  Intelligence  is  now  being  transmitted 
in  Chicago  by  electricity,  also  otherwise. 

The  city  street  must  be  under  pubhc  control  as  far  down  as 
one  can  dig  and  as  far  up  as  one  can  think. 

Chicago's  China  Nest  Egg 

Chicago,  like  Gaul,  is  divided  into  three  parts.  Its  business 
area  is  circumscribed  by  the  lake  on  the  east,  the  river  on  the 
north  and  west,  and  railway  yards  a  mile  square  on  the  south. 
These  natural  and  artificial  limitations  have  been  intensified 
by  the  elevated  railway  loop,  carrying  trains  from  the  three  sides 
of  the  city  about  an  inner  quadrangle.  After  the  fashion  of 
most  growing  and  unawakened  cities,  Chicago  let  out  franchises 
to  surface  and  elevated  railways  covering  segregated  geographi- 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  43 

cal  areas,  but  meeting  in  this  restricted  center.  Chicago's 
tight  to  unify  these  illogical  transportation  units  and  to  secure 
public  control  is  an  important  chapter  in  municipal  sociology. 

The  wolf  that  suckled  Romulus  and  Remus  was  not  of  the 
same  breed  as  the  wolves  that  bled  Chicago. 

A  graduate  of  the  Eastern  Penitentiary  of  Pennsylvania  was 
the  expert  who  first  undertook  to  unify  Chicago's  transportation 
system.  He  bought  the  north-  and  west-side  Hnes  and  by 
selling  them  to  himself  several  times  amassed  a  fortune.  He 
had  the  assistance  of  Chicago's  "gray  wolves"  —  a  majority 
in  the  city  council  —  who  were  not  graduates  but  promising 
novitiates.  As  the  franchises  began  to  expire  municipaUty 
and  state  were  manipulated  and  courts  petitioned  to  keep 
the  people  from  regaining  their  own.  The  state  legislature 
extended  the  limit  of  new  franchises  from  twenty  to  fifty  years, 
but  the  citizens  were  able  to  prevent  the  granting  of  such  fran- 
chises. The  courts  weakened  the  companies'  case  by  declaring 
an  old  ninety-nine  year  act  applicable  only  to  horse  cars.  The 
courts  also  established  the  right  of  municipal  ownership  in 
Chicago,  but  they  could  not  give  the  city  financial  power. 

Chicago  would  have  owned  its  transportation  system  by 
this  time  if  it  had  had  the  rights  granted  by  the  state  to  private 
corporations. 

The  city  repeatedly  voted  for  municipal  ownership  and  sought 
power  from  the  legislature  to  finance  the  project.  The  law 
passed  proved  unconstitutional.  So  the  city  had  to  deal  with 
private  capital.  Yet  the  companies  were  so  shorn  of  power 
that  they  were  compelled  to  capitulate  by  permitting  water  to 
be  squeezed  out  of  their  stocks.  The  elevated  system  was  not 
involved.  The  surface  railways  were  appraised  at  fifty  millions. 
New  capital  was  to  be  added  to  the  original  valuation  as  needed. 
The  city  was  to  have  the  option  of  purchase  and  operation  at 
the  end  of  any  six  months'  period  by  payment  of  this  price. 
The  companies  were  to  be  allowed  lo  per  cent  for  contractors' 
profit  and  $  per  cent  for  brokerage.  Fares  were  fixed  at  five 
cents  for  adults,  three  cents  for  children.  Universal  transfers 
were  to  be  given  except  in  the  business  district ;  through  routes 
were  provided  for.  While  the  companies  operated  the  lines 
they  must  be  allowed  5  per  cent  on  capital,  55  per  cent  of  the 
net  profits  going  to  the  city  to  constitute  a  purchase  fund. 


44  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

Walter  L.  Fisher,  city's  counsel,  and  Bion  J.  Arnold,  city's 
engineer,  skillfully  unraveled  a  great  physical  and  legal  tangle. 

Chicago  now  has  two  unified  systems  of  transportation,  sur- 
face and  elevated,  with  a  single  five-cent  fare  on  each,  from  city 
limit  to  city  Umit.  Lacking  a  system  of  subways,  Chicago 
compares  favorably  with  New  York's  chaos  and  unfavorably 
with  Boston's  single  three-level  system.  It  has  received  nearly 
fourteen  milUon  dollars  of  street  railway  profits  to  apply  to 
municipal  ownership.  Meanwhile,  the  fifty  million  appraisal 
has  been  increased  by  rehabilitation  and  extensions  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty-eight  milHon.  The  city  gains  fourteen 
million  while  the  purchase  price  has  grown  seventy  miUion.  On 
that  investment  the  companies  are  earning  8  per  cent  while  the 
city  gets  2j  per  cent  on  its  money  in  the  bank.  If  invested  at 
5  per  cent,  Chicago  might  have  ninety  milUons  in  1927,  when 
the  franchises  expire,  with  which  to  buy  a  system  which  will 
then  probably  be  worth  two  hundred  milHon  dollars. 

Pigs  is  pigs ;  franchises  is  franchises ;  municipal  ownership  is 
municipal  ownership. 

Philadelphia,  Too  1 

All  metropolitan  cities  are  facing  the  necessity  of  subway 
construction.  St.  Louis  has  been  authorized  by  the  legislature 
to  incur  traction  indebtedness.  Philadelphia  is  meeting  its 
needs  with  a  boldness  that  has  not  been  evidenced  since  the  first 
street  railway  franchises  were  granted.  The  original  Phila- 
delphia franchises  made  municipal  ownership  possible.  This 
was  subsequently  yielded  and  the  company  granted  more  and 
more  privileges  in  view  of  the  city's  impotence.  For  one  valu- 
able extension  of  franchises  the  company  agreed  to  sell  strips 
of  six  tickets  for  a  quarter  with  transfers.  The  company  first 
withdrew  the  transfers  and  then  the  strip  tickets.  For  a  pre- 
vious valuable  privilege  the  company  agreed  to  pave  the  streets 
on  which  its  cars  ran  and  remove  the  snow.  These  burdens, 
together  with  the  licenses,  have  also  been  annulled. 

Philadelphia  sold  its  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage,  and 
then  lost  the  pottage. 

It  is  now  proposed  to  be  equally  generous  to  the  company  in 
planning  a  rapid  transit  system  at  the  expense  of  the  city  and 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  45 

under  municipal  control.  This  system  will  include  two  elevated 
arms  to  be  built  by  the  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Company,  of 
great  value  to  them  as  feeders.  It  will  include  a  tunnel  to 
Camden,  New  Jersey,  Philadelphia's  most  important  suburb. 
The  transit  company  will,  of  course,  control  this.  The  plan 
includes  further  a  city-built  subway  connecting  with  the  existing 
short  private  subway.  It  is  proposed  that  the  company  shall 
spend  eighteen  million  dollars  for  its  extensions  and  improve- 
ments and  the  city  forty-seven  million  dollars  for  building  the 
subway.  The  company  will  receive  6  per  cent  interest  on  its 
investment  and  a  preferential  payment  for  losses  incurred 
through  a  municipal  link  in  the  transit  system,  provided  this 
does  not  exceed  a  half  million  dollars  a  year. 

The  company  reUnquishes  its  uncontrolled  monopoly  of  urban 
transportation  and  a  three-cent  exchange  ticket  that  is  the 
Philadelphia  substitute  for  a  transfer.  Experts,  familiar  with 
the  intricacy  of  Philadelphia's  transportation  system,  can  ride 
down  town  and  back  for  eight  cents  on  one  of  these  exchange 
tickets.  Anyone  wishing  to  cross  any  part  of  the  city  diagonally, 
however,  has  to  pay  eight  cents  for  that  privilege.  This  con- 
fusing and  onerous  system  is  to  be  eliminated  and  the  company 
must  be  abundantly  indemnified  for  its  estimated  losses.  A 
division  of  the  fares  for  passengers  using  both  the  private  and 
public  sections  of  the  rapid  transit  system  will  give  the  com- 
pany two  cents  and  the  city  three  cents  for  each  five-cent  fare, — 
another  arrangement  generous  to  the  company.  The  great 
advantage  that  will  come  to  the  city  will  be  a  unified  rapid 
transit  system  with  universal  transfers  on  a  five-cent  fare. 
Genuine  municipal  control  of  rapid  transit  is  promised  in  1964 ! 

Philadelphians  have  voted  ten  to  one  a  loan  of  $6,000,000  to 
start  Director  Taylor's  rapid  transit  system. 

The  greatest  immediate  gain  is  in  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment authorized  by  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  that  is  neces- 
sary for  the  satisfactory  carrying  out  of  these  provisions.  At 
the  November,  191 5,  election  the  question  will  be  decided 
whether,  in  incurring  indebtedness  for  transit  development  and 
docks,  Philadelphia  may  issue  its  obligations  for  50  years  in- 
stead of  30  years,  and  whether  such  remunerative  investments 
may  be  excluded  from  the  debt  limit.  This  amendment  will 
set  free  a  large  amount  of  Philadelphia's  assets  for  public  im- 


46  AMERICAN   MUNICIP.\L  PROGRESS 

provements.  The  completing  of  the  subway  will  increase  the 
taxable  values  because  of  the  vastly  superior  rapid  transit 
system.  The  ever  increasing  burden  of  exchange  tickets  will 
be  eliminated.  The  city's  residential  area  will  be  enlarged  and 
its  population  made  more  efficient.  The  commercial  and 
industrial  growth  will  follow  logical  instead  of  arbitrary  lines. 

Rapid  transit  in  Philadelphia  will  bear  hard  on  the  jesters 
as  well  as  the  grafters. 

Detroit's  Struggle  for  Municipal  Ownership 

Detroit  and  Toledo  are  impressive  examples  of  cities  sacrificed 
to  the  fetish  of  private  profit.  They  have  been  limited  by 
antiquated  state  constitutions.  They  have  been  denied  home 
rule.  They  have  been  throttled  by  the  courts.  Their  struggles 
to  control  their  transportation  systems  have  been  notable  efforts 
at  self-government.  They  are  still  strugghng,  not  because  of 
the  failure  of  municipal  government,  of  which  undomesticated 
Americans  are  so  boastful ;  they  are  the  victims  of  the  failure 
of  private  enterprise.  From  the  days  of  Hazen  Pingree  and 
Sam  Jones,  devoted  public  servants  have  been  hampered  by  the 
relentless  enmity  of  transportation  magnates  engaged  in  a 
mischievous  attempt  to  make  the  pubKc  pay  dividends  on 
values  created  by  the  pubUc. 

One  does  not  blame  an  army  for  getting  scratched  on  the 
enemy's  barbed  wire. 

Before  Tom  Johnson  went  to  Cleveland  he  became  converted 
to  municipal  ownership  by  his  experiences  with  Pingree  in 
Detroit.  Upon  Johnson's  defeat  for  reelection  to  Congress, 
he  returned  to  street  railway  management,  taking  over  a  de- 
teriorated Detroit  railway.  He  rehabiUtated  it  and  managed 
it  so  well  that  he  got  control  of  Pingree's  three-cent  fine.  The 
five-cent  system  swallowed  the  three-cent  system.  The  fran- 
chise compelled,  and  will  compel  until  1924,  the  selling  of  eight 
tickets  for  twenty-five  cents  on  the  streets  occupied  by  Pingree's 
line.  Johnson  learned  and  proved  to  Pingree  the  futihty  of 
competition  in  urban  transportation.  A  premature  effort  was 
made  to  buy  the  system  for  the  city,  but  the  people  distrusted 
two  of  the  most  public-spirited  mayors  America  has  ever  known. 

Mayor  Pingree's  unsuccessful  endeavors  to  deal  with  the 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  47 

Street  railway  companies  of  Detroit  forced  him  reluctantly  to 
the  acceptance  of  municipal  ownership. 

As  governor  of  Michigan,  after  three  terms  in  the  mayor's 
chair,  he  secured  the  authorization  of  a  street  railway  com- 
mission with  power  to  purchase  and  operate  the  railways  of 
Detroit.  The  commission  was  appointed  with  Pingree  as 
chairman.  Negotiations  were  opened  with  the  railways,  but 
the  supreme  court  of  the  state  held  the  commission  unconstitu- 
tional on  the  ground  that  the  constitution  of  1850  forbade  the 
state  to  be  "party  to  or  interested  in  any  work  of  internal 
improvement."  The  court  held  that  this  prohibited  the  grant- 
ing of  the  right  of  municipal  operation  to  a  city,  although  the 
state  could  give  those  powers  to  private  corporations.  Thus 
as  early  as  1899  the  personal  prejudices  of  judges  as  to  the 
propriety  of  municipal  ownership  seem  to  have  been  the  only 
obstacles  to  the  effective  expression  of  the  will  of  the  people  in 
Detroit. 

It  is  always  hard  to  beat  the  opposing  team  and  the  umpire. 

Municipal  ownership  having  to  wait  for  the  revision  of  the 
state  constitution,  Detroit  tried  to  settle  its  transportation 
question  by  franchises.  The  campaign  of  1906  became  crucial, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  over  sixty  miles  of  railway  lines  were 
covered  by  an  expiring  franchise,  while  nearly  sixty  were  oper- 
ated under  the  Pingree  franchise  that  gave  eight  tickets  for  a 
quarter.  A  comparatively  liberal  franchise  was  inevitable, 
but  ten  tickets  for  a  quarter  during  rush  hours  and  six  for 
twenty-five  cents  at  other  hours  did  not  satisfy  a  people  who 
had  been  educated  to  municipal  ownership.  They  voted  the 
franchise  down  30,000  to  14,000.  The  new  state  constitution 
of  191 2  gave  the  right  of  municipal  ownership,  and  the  citizens 
decided  in  April,  1913,  by  a  vote  of  four  to  one  to  municipaUze 
their  railways.  A  new  franchise,  liberal  beyond  the  dreams  of 
New  York  or  Kansas  City,  has  resulted,  but  the  people  have 
now  voted  for  municipal  ownership.  The  Detroit  United 
Railway  has  accepted  the  street  railway  commission's  offer  to 
assume  the  mortgages  of  $24,900,000,  paying  no  cash.  The  city 
must  cover  the  mortgages  out  of  the  street  railway  earnings. 
Municipal  ownership  again  awaits  the  people's  vote. 

The  deathbed  repentance  of  transportation  magnates  can 
evoke  only  crocodile  tears  from  an  enlightened  public. 


48  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

The  Golden  Rule  and  Home  Rule  in  Toledo 

The  commercial  and  political  capitals  of  Ohio  have  steadily 
forged  ahead  coincidently  with  the  progress  of  urban  trans- 
portation. Cleveland  was  harrassed  by  a  lawless  corporation 
supported  by  the  "best"  citizens.  Columbus  had  a  severe 
setback  from  a  street  railway  strike,  in  which  a  peace-loving 
mayor  was  opposed  by  belligerent  business.  Nevertheless, 
agitators,  demagogues,  patriots,  and  martyrs  have  secured  for 
Cleveland  a  three-cent  fare  and  for  Columbus  eight  tickets  for 
twenty-five  cents  on  a  sliding  scale  of  dividends  and  fares  that 
guarantees  justice  to  everybody.^  Meanwhile  "business" 
methods  have  been  triumphant  in  Cincinnati  and  Toledo.  In 
the  former  city  there  has  been  a  steady  retrogression,  while 
its  rivals  have  been  advancing.  It  is  also  the  only  city  in 
Ohio  to  be  hampered  by  a  fifty-year  franchise,  temporarily 
made  possible  by  a  corrupt  legislature.  An  undesirable  sub- 
urban franchise  was  voted  on  by  referendum  in  March,  1915, 
and  turned  down  by  an  overwhelming  majority.  The  election 
cost  the  city  $23,000  and  was  made  significant  by  the  apparently 
incurable  stupidity  of  the  faction  that  recommended  the  fran- 
chise with  the  slogan,  "Business  or  Bigelowism."  A  rapid 
transit  commission  has  at  last  been  appointed  and  a  $7,000,000 
municipal  system  is  projected.  In  Toledo  the  street  railway 
company  has  preferred  to  carry  people  free  rather  than  obey 
the  law,  because  seven  successive  terms  of  reform  mayors  have 
not  won  the  support  of  big  business. 

Business  is  business :  it  is  not  service. 

It  was  under  "Golden  Rule"  Jones  that  the  question  of  the 
renewal  of  the  street  railway  franchises  began  to  be  agitated. 
The  conditions  were  similar  to  those  almost  every  large  city 
has  experienced.  The  companies  had  secured  franchises  in 
the  old  days  of  horse  cars ;  had  adopted  electricity  by  economic 
necessity ;  had  inflated  their  values  in  the  process ;  had  made 
no  provision  for  depreciation,  yet  expected  the  people  to  foot 
the  bills  for  incompetent  management,  to  pay  interest  on  the 

*  The  new  Columbus  franchise  required  the  exfienditure  of  $i,ooo,ocx3  in  improve- 
ments and  the  increase  of  tickets  from  seven  for  twenty-five  cents  to  eight  for 
twenty-five  cents  when  the  gross  annual  income  should  reach  $1,750,000.  It  is 
under  these  conditions  that  Columbus  has  been  enabled  to  get  eight  tickets  for  a 
quarter. 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  49 

values  created  by  the  public  alone,  and  to  extend  the  franchises 
prematurely.  When  the  companies  wanted  to  renew  the  fran- 
chises for  twenty-five  years,  Mayor  Jones  vetoed  the  ordinance. 
A  typically  subservient  council  would  have  passed  the  franchise 
over  his  veto  but  for  a  formidable  physical  protest  of  the  popu- 
lace. 

The  golden  rule  was  a  novelty  in  street  railway  dealings. 

After  Jones's  death  the  traitorous  council  granted  the  com- 
pany of  speculators  a  renewal  of  their  privileges.  The  acting 
mayor  vetoed  this  ordinance  and  only  menace  of  numbers  in- 
timidated the  council.  Under  Mayor  Whitlock  the  three-cent 
slogan  of  Tom  Johnson  was  made  popular.  The  Chicago  Settle- 
ment franchises  of  1907  had  pointed  the  way  to  rigid  public 
supervision  and  ultimate  municipal  ownership.  Cleveland  was 
making  progress  toward  a  three-cent  fare.  The  Toledo  com- 
pany had  a  capitalization  of  $30,000,000  on  a  $5,000,000  in- 
vestment. It  was  a  merger  corporation  and  operated  as  two 
systems  because  one  of  the  old  franchises  compelled  the  selling 
of  eight  tickets  for  twenty-five  cents  for  use  morning  and  even- 
ing. The  company  forfeited  all  right  to  considerate  treatment 
by  refusing  to  have  a  valuation  set  on  its  property  by  impartial 
experts.     Meanwhile  the  franchises  were  expiring. 

It  is  a  commentary  on  American  complacency  that  a  company 
with  no  rights  in  the  streets  still  demands  privileges. 

The  city  soHcitor,  Mr.  Cornell  Schreiber,  drew  up  an  or- 
dinance which  was  passed  by  the  council  giving  the  company 
license  to  use  the  streets  conditioned  on  a  three-cent  fare.  The 
company  offered  a  franchise  showing  the  change  of  sentiment 
resultant  from  the  long  agitation.  It  agreed  to  carry  adults 
for  tickets  sold  five  for  fifteen  cents  and  children  under  eight  for 
one  cent  a  ride  for  a  year,  while  a  city  commissioner  worked  out 
an  equitable  rate  of  fare  for  the  following  five  years.  Municipal 
ownership  was  made  possible  on  twelve  months'  notice.  The 
people  have  voted  for  it  once.  The  legal  limitations  on  the 
city  and  the  discontent  of  the  people  make  agreement  almost 
impossible.  The  court  has  decided  that  a  straight  three-cent 
fare  is  inadequate  with  the  present  receipts  and  expenses. 

Toledo's  civic  and  commercial  progress  has  been  almost 
suspended  because  it  lacks  home  rule  in  its  streets. 


50  AilERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

Cleveland's  Three-cent  Fare 

The  wailing  of  street  railway  men  throughout  the  country 
is  amusing  or  disgusting  to  the  individual  who  finds  three  pennies 
dropped  in  a  box  in  a  Cleveland  street  car  adequate  to  carry 
him  the  length  of  that  great  city.  If  this  is  possible  in  a  city 
of  over  half  a  million  inhabitants,  occupying  a  wide  expanse  of 
territory,  why  is  such  bad  service  given  for  five  cents  in  most 
American  cities?  If  New  York's  and  Philadelphia's  perpetual 
franchises  require  five  cents  from  each  passenger  with  very  im- 
perfect transfer  privileges,  how  can  Cleveland's  ordinance, 
menaced  by  municipal  ownership,  give  universal  transfers  for 
three  cents?  The  answer  may  be  that  sometimes  one  must 
pay  one  cent  on  a  three-cent  fare  for  a  transfer  in  Cleveland, 
as  contrasted  with  the  regular  custom  of  paying  three  cents  for  a 
transfer  on  a  five-cent  fare  in  Philadelphia.  But  the  practice 
in  Cleveland  is  based  on  a  sliding  scale  determined  accurately 
by  earnings  and  controlled  absolutely  by  a  city  commissioner. 

The  most  liberal  franchises  always  result  in  the  worst  service 
and  are  generally  held  by  the  worst  rascals. 

By  the  Tayler  Settlement  Cleveland  got  three-cent  fares, 
with  municipal  ownership  in  prospect.  Judge  Tayler  proposed 
a  schedule  of  fares  based  on  a  normal  $500,000  cash  operating 
balance  that  may  never  be  diminished  below  $300,000  and 
never  increased  above  $700,000.  A  sliding  scale  of  fares  is 
provided  for  a  single  continuous  ride  within  the  city  limits. 
Starting  with  a  three-cent  fare  and  one  cent  for  a  transfer,  the 
penny  is  to  be  rebated  if  the  income  warrants  it.  If  the  income 
is  still  above  the  $500,000  cash  balance,  tickets  are  to  be  sold 
two  for  five  cents  instead  of  five  for  fifteen  cents.  If  the  in- 
come falls  so  that  even  the  one  cent  for  transfer  is  inadequate 
to  maintain  the  balance,  then  a  four-cent  fare,  with  three  tickets 
for  ten  cents,  is  established.  Thus  the  fare  slides  up  or  down 
exactly  in  proportion  to  income. 

High-handed  financiers  scoff  at  self-appointed  reformers  as 
"tailors  of  Tooley  Street,"  but  they  sit  silent  before  Judge 
Tayler  representing  the  people  in  Cleveland  streets. 

The  fact  that  Cleveland  leads  metropolitan  cities  to-day  in 
the  cheapness  of  street  railway  fares  is  due,  as  every  one  knows, 
to  Tom  Johnson.     While  all  of  Cleveland's  respectability  was 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  SI 

heaping  anathemas  on  this  railway  expert,  while  one  heard  at 
Cleveland's  business  men's  clubs  encomiums  for  Pat  Calhoun, 
the  San  Francisco  railway  grafter,  and  execrations  for  Cleve- 
land's benefactor,  this  plucky  public  servant  was  laying  down 
his  life  to  give  his  city  adequate  and  cheap  transportation. 
Like  every  other  reform  mayor  he  had  to  spend  his  life  in  over- 
specialization  because  of  the  malicious  opposition  of  those  who 
ought  to  have  been  his  and  the  city's  friends.  Johnson  was 
elected  mayor  just  prior  to  the  expiration  of  many  of  Cleve- 
land's street  railway  franchises.  As  a  successful  railway  mag- 
nate he  brought  to  his  task  unusual  knowledge.  He  doubtless 
made  mistakes  due  to  the  intensity  of  the  conflict,  but  he  shall 
be  known  by  his  works. 

Tom  Johnson  said,  "The  only  good  franchise  is  a  dead  fran- 
chise," and  he  never  deserted  the  bedside  of  expiring  franchises. 

Limited  by  the  laws  of  Ohio,  opposed  by  legislators  of  the 
state  who  robbed  his  city  of  home  rule,  Johnson  was  compelled 
to  resort  to  competition.  The  Forest  City  Railway  Company 
was  given  a  franchise  on  routes  where  the  older  company  had 
no  longer  rights.  This  property  was  leased  to  a  holding  com- 
pany at  6  per  cent,  with  the  requirement  of  three-cent  fares 
and  universal  transfers.  In  1908  this  company  with  sixteen 
miles  of  track  was  given  the  operation  of  all  the  street  railways 
of  Cleveland,  subject  to  public  referendum.  An  inspired  strike 
of  employees  brought  about  an  adverse  referendum  and  the 
holding  company  went  into  the  hands  of  receivers.  The  mayor 
persisted  in  starting  rival  lines,  but  after  years  of  desperate 
opposition  and  repeated  campaigns  for  reelection,  a  compromise 
came  in  the  form  of  the  Tayler  Settlement. 

Cleveland  now  enjoys  the  sliding  scale  of  fares,  vibrating 
about  the  three-cent  unit  (five  cents  to  three  suburban  dis- 
tricts), control  by  the  street  railway  commissioner,  arbitration 
of  all  disputes,  and  the  compelling  power  of  ultimate  municipal 
ownership. 

Some  day  every  city  in  America  will  establish  a  memorial 
to  Tom  Johnson  in  the  form  of  a  street  railway  system  serving 
the  citizens  at  cost. 


52  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

San  Francisco's  Municipal  Railway 

Rome  on  its  seven  hills  was  simple  and  primitive  compared 
■with  San  Francisco  on  seven  and  seventy  hills.  The  early  plan 
of  the  city  followed  slavishly  American  tradition.  William 
Penn's  prosaic  gridiron  system  of  streets  was  imposed  on  those 
multitudinous  hills,  making  the  transportation  problem  more 
difficult  than  that  of  New  York  or  Pittsburgh.  The  original 
public  vehicle  of  San  Francisco  was  the  omnibus.  Horse  cars 
were  introduced  in  the  'sixties,  to  be  supplanted  by  cable  rail- 
ways in  the  'seventies.  While  these  were  in  process  of  develop- 
ment a  new  state  constitution  was  anticipated  by  the  com- 
panies which  received  fifty-year  franchise  extensions.  Railways 
multiplied  before  and  after  electricity  was  introduced  so  that 
by  1895  there  were  seventeen  different  street  railway  systems 
in  San  Francisco.  Consolidation  then  became  imperative,  and 
in  1902  all  systems  except  three  were  included  in  the  United 
Railways. 

The  sins  of  the  fathers  shall  be  visited  upon  the  children  unto 
the  third  and  fourth  generations. 

At  the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  century  municipal  ownership 
had  penetrated  the  minds  of  San  Franciscans.  The  new  city 
charter  made  municipal  purchase  of  public  utilities  possible. 
This  was  inspired  by  the  high-handed  methods  of  the  United 
Railways  that  had  been  organized  by  familiar  New  York  de- 
vices involving  financial  obUgations  no  corporation  could  meet 
and  serve  the  public  adequately.  The  company  had  suffered 
from  the  fire  and  from  a  subsequent  strike  and  would  have  had 
the  sympathy  of  the  people  but  for  the  entanglement  of  the 
railway  officials  in  the  graft  revelations  that  aroused  San  Fran- 
cisco from  its  lethargy. 

The  straight  and  narrow  path  ought  to  have  been  easy  in 
San  Francisco  streets,  but  for  ways  that  are  devious  Bret  Harte's 
Heathen  Chinee  has  had  no  monopoly. 

As  early  as  1896  the  Supervisors  of  San  Francisco  had  at- 
tempted to  extend  the  franchise  of  the  Geary  Street  Railway, 
but  the  court  decided  it  was  not  legitimate  more  than  a  year 
before  its  expiration  in  1903.  With  the  charter  revision  giving 
the  city  authority  for  municipal  ownership,  agitation  to  munici- 
palize the  Geary  Street  road  began.     The  first  referendum  in 


Municipal  Trolley  Car,  San  Francisco. 


Pholofjrnpfi  by  the  Heiscr  Company. 

Three  Pennies  or  Five  Tickets  for  Fifteen  Cents  ! 
Cleveland. 


MUNICIPAL   RAILWAY   REGULATION  53 

1902  proposed  an  electric  conduit  system  in  substitution  for  the 
antiquated  cable  conduit  at  a  cost  of  $700,000.  The  necessary 
two-thirds  majority  was  lacking,  although  the  vote  was  15,000 
to  10,000.  A  second  election  was  lost  in  1903  by  a  vote  of 
14,000  to  10,000.  The  third  election,  June,  1909,  fell  short  of 
a  two-thirds  majority  by  only  203  votes.  The  fourth  election 
in  December  of  the  same  year  was  carried  overwhelmingly, 
28,000  to  7000,  although  the  bond  issue  now  amounted  to  over 
two  millions.  The  rebuilding  of  the  road  was  begun  in  191 1; 
court  decisions  gave  authority  to  continue  the  road  down 
Market  Street,  where  most  of  the  lines  converge,  to  the  Union 
Ferry  Station. 

In  December,  191 2,  the  municipal  system  began  to  operate. 
Although  the  agitation  was  suflEiciently  prolonged  to  educate 
the  people  to  a  due  appreciation  of  the  difificulties  of  municipal 
ownership,  the  conditions  were  not  at  all  ideal.  The  franchise 
values  of  the  United  Railways  made  general  municipal  owner- 
ship impracticable  for  the  moment,  but  the  inability  of  the 
company  to  cover  depreciation  due  to  the  fire  and  strike  made 
them  vulnerable.  They  would  have  been  entitled  to  sympathetic 
consideration  had  their  officials  previously  shown  sufl&cient  hon- 
esty and  efficiency.  As  it  is,  the  people  are  determined  to  make 
even  partial  municipal  ownership  a  success. 

The  Geary  Street  wedge  is  making  a  big  opening. 

In  August,  1913,  an  additional  bond  issue  of  three  and  a  half 
millions  was  voted  for  extensions  and  for  taking  over  the  Union 
Street  line,  the  franchise  of  which  expired  in  December,  1913. 
Operating  only  these  two  Umited  fines,  the  city's  receipts  the 
latter  part  of  the  first  year  were  $1902  daily  on  the  Geary 
Street  line  and  $958  daily  on  the  Union  Street  line,  as  com- 
pared with  an  average  daily  return  of  $473  for  the  first  seven 
months  of  the  Geary  Street  road's  operation. 

Both  lines  had  antiquated  equipment ;  the  Geary  Street  line 
ran  only  to  Market  Street ;  the  Union  Street  line  from  the  Ferry 
Station  skirted  the  business  area  on  the  north  so  that  it  did  not 
tap  the  rich  patronage  of  the  United  Railways.  The  city 
promptly  extended  the  Geary  Street  line  to  the  Ferry,  put  on 
new  cars,  and  ran  them  not  only  all  the  way  across  San  Francisco 
to  the  ocean,  but  established  branch  lines.  The  old  cars  were 
continued  on  Union  Street.     The  building  of  a  tunnel  on  Stock- 


54  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

ton  Street  gave  the  city  the  opportunity  to  add  a  rapid  transit 
line  that  would  run  from  Market  Street  through  the  tunnel  and 
over  the  Union  Street  tracks  to  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition. 
A  franchise  to  build  the  tunnel  had  been  granted  in  1907,  but 
the  company  failed  to  use  it,  and  it  proved  a  gold  mine  to  the 
city.  Costing  $430,000  it  has  given  the  favored  route  to  carry 
the  big  crowds  to  the  Exposition.  The  city  also  built  an  emer- 
gency line  out  Van  Ness  Avenue,  that  gives  the  Geary  Street 
route  connection  with  the  Exposition.  With  a  small  fraction  of 
the  mileage  of  San  Francisco,  the  municipality  has  the  two  best 
lines  to  the  Fair.  For  the  year  19 14  the  receipts  were  over  a 
million  dollars.  The  net  revenues,  after  making  all  comparisons 
with  a  private  company,  even  including  what  the  city  does  not 
have  to  pay,  were  over  $112,000. 

The  motormen  and  conductors,  working  an  eight-hour  day, 
earn  more  than  the  employees  of  the  private  company. 

San  Francisco  is  building  another  tunnel  of  vastly  greater 
proportions  that  will  not  only  open  up  a  7000-acre  undeveloped 
residential  section  of  the  most  desirable  character,  but  give  it  a 
great  leverage  on  the  United  Railways.  The  Twin  Peaks,  1000 
feet  high,  crown  Market  Street,  San  Francisco's  central  thor- 
oughfare. They  are  being  pierced  by  a  tunnel  over  two  miles 
long,  to  be  traversed  by  express  trains  in  five  minutes.  The 
total  cost  of  this  big  municipal  venture  is  nearly  four  millions, 
most  of  it  assessed  on  the  property  to  be  developed.  There  will 
be  two  stations  en  route  with  passenger  elevators,  so  that  the 
side  of  the  mountain  may  be  used  for  residences.  It  will  be 
possible  to  continue  the  tunnel  as  a  subway  under  Market 
Street  if  desired.  The  United  Railways  will  probably  be  per- 
mitted to  use  the  tunnel  on  adequate  rental,  but  it  is  primarily 
to  extend  the  Municipal  Railway  service. 

Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  peace,  but  aggressive  operation 
is  the  price  of  municipal  ownership. 

Note.  —  The  Philadelphia  referendum,  referred  to  on  page  45,  was  decided 
affirmatively. 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE    CITY    STREET 

The  Transmigration  of  Paving 

If  all  roads  used  to  lead  to  Rome,  all  public  services  have 
hitherto  led  to  the  city  street,  and  all  city  streets  lead  to  the 
City  Hall.  The  municipal  expert  must  get  as  tired  hearing 
about  Roman  roads  as  the  Greek  did  at  the  reiteration  of  the 
justness  of  Aristides.  In  view  of  the  road  building  of  the  an- 
cients it  is  a  commentary  both  on  the  lateness  and  speed  of 
municipal  development  that  progress  in  street  construction  is 
so  spectacular  to-day.  Twenty  years  ago  street  making  was  in 
its  infancy.  The  best  paved  streets  of  Europe  were  made  of 
wooden  blocks  —  the  most  expensive  material  in  countries  of 
scant  forests.  Now  even  in  the  land  that  uses  ten  times  as 
much  lumber  per  capita  as  France  wooden  pavements  have 
several  and  serious  rivals.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  in  this  country  asphalt  was  in  demand  wherever  it 
could  be  afforded.  It  is  now  being  superseded  by  better  pave- 
ments and  each  year  may  witness  new  paving  material  sup- 
planting old. 

Street  paving  has  advanced  more  in  twenty  years  than  it  did 
in  twenty  hundred. 

American  streets  were  formerly  paved  as  a  last  resort ;  they 
were  paved  with  the  cheapest  material  if  possible,  with  the  most 
durable  if  necessary ;  the  paving  was  laid  with  emphasis  on  the 
surface  rather  than  the  foundation;  it  was  promptly  torn  up 
to  put  in  forgotten  pipes  or  wires ;  then  it  was  left  to  rot ;  and 
after  the  street  had  long  been  impassable  another  pavement 
was  laid.  The  materials  of  Europe  were  employed  but  European 
methods  were  followed  very  remotely.  Philadelphia,  New  York 
and  especially  Baltimore  freely  used  cobblestones  —  the  worst 
of  durable  pavements.  Chicago,  Detroit,  Superior  and  other 
western  cities  used  cedar  blocks  laid  on  boards  —  the  worst  of 

55 


56  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

perishable  pavements.  The  eastern  cities  named  and  others 
used  granite  blocks  where  the  traffic  was  heaviest,  but  laid  it 
so  badly  it  was  often  little  better  than  cobblestone. 

Municipal  housekeeping  was  in  the  hands  of  ignorant  servants. 

The  economy  of  good  street  paving  is  being  rapidly  appre- 
ciated in  American  cities.  Recent  improvements  here,  as  well 
as  the  longer  years  of  European  experience,  tend  to  demonstrate 
the  importance  of  a  twofold  principle :  good  paving  consists  of 
a  substantial,  thoroughly  drained  foundation,  covered  by  a 
water-tight  surface  kept  constantly  in  repair.  Macadam,  wood, 
brick,  concrete,  stone,  asphalt  and  other  surfaces  are  merely 
top  dressings,  which,  if  laid  on  a  solid  foundation  of  concrete 
and  kept  in  repair,  will  insure  good  streets,  requiring  only  in 
each  case  to  be  adapted  to  the  particular  needs  of  certain  quarters 
of  the  city. 

When  one  thinks  how  recently  the  newer  American  cities 
began  to  pave  their  streets  the  extent  of  street  paving  is  truly 
encouraging.  But  when  one  compares  the  materials  and  the 
character  of  paving  in  different  cities,  their  methods  seem  in- 
credibly erratic.  Boston  is  the  only  city  that  reports  virtually 
no  streets  unpaved,  but  73  per  cent  of  Boston's  500  miles  of 
streets  have  a  nondurable  pavement.  A  still  larger  percentage 
is  found  in  the  suburbs,  the  population  of  which  is  as  great  as 
that  of  Boston.  Greater  New  York,  which  has  three-fifths  of  its 
paved  streets  covered  with  durable  pavement,  still  has  over  one- 
third  of  its  streets  outside  of  Manhattan  unpaved.  In  Chicago, 
where  durable  paving  now  preponderates  over  nondurable,  nearly 
half  the  street  mileage  is  still  unpaved,  but  Chicago's  enormous 
area  makes  it  responsible  for  almost  3000  miles  of  streets. 

New  York's  or  Chicago's  streets  would  span  the  continent. 

Philadelphia,  with  almost  2000  miles  of  streets,  has  only 
one-sixth  paved  with  nondurable  pavement,  but  has  one-fourth 
unpaved.  St.  Louis  divides  pretty  evenly  the  streets  that  are 
unpaved  and  those  that  have  durable  and  nondurable  pave- 
ments. Cleveland  has  paved  more  than  half  of  its  nearly  700 
miles  of  streets  exclusively  with  durable  pavement.  Pittsburgh 
has  a  similar  record  for  its  1000  miles  of  streets  and  alleys.^  It 
cannot  be  said  as  yet  that  there  is  any  system  in  American  street 

'  Detroit,  Buffalo,  San  Francisco,  New  Orleans  and  Kansas  City  have  very  little 
nondurable  pavement,  but  many  miles  of  unpaved  streets. 


THE   CITY   STREET  57 

paving  except  that  the  materials  used  are  much  better  laid  and 
much  better  maintained  than  formerly. 

It  is  easier  to  come  down  the  pike  than  it  used  to  be. 

Granite  and  Asphalt 

The  original  substantial  paving  in  American  cities  was  cobble- 
stone. The  Atlantic  seaport  cities  used  this  as  the  most  avail- 
able material  because  it  was  brought  over  as  ballast  in  Euro- 
pean ships.  It  was  succeeded  by  granite  or  Belgian  block,  that 
is  still  used  widely  because  of  furnishing  the  most  satisfactory 
service  for  the  heaviest  traffic.  Well  "dressed"  or  "faced" 
blocks  make  a  surface  that  facilitates  ease  of  hauling,  although 
it  is  noisy  and  uncomfortable  for  lighter  vehicles.  The  use  of 
Belgian  block  varies  with  the  accessibility  of  granite  or  similar 
stone  and  the  uses  of  the  street.  Philadelphia  and  New  York 
each  have  nearly  400  miles  of  street  paved  with  Belgian  block. 
Pittsburgh  ranks  next  with  230  and  San  Francisco  follows  with 
over  100.  The  practice  in  these  cities  is  due  to  their  topography 
or  the  narrowness  of  early  streets,  causing  congestion  of  traflSc. 
This  explains  why  Jersey  City  has  80  miles  of  granite  block, 
and  why  Boston  has  only  96.  It  is  not  creditable  to  municipal 
finance  that  the  cost  of  laying  Belgian  block  ranges  from  $4.25 
a  square  yard  in  Buffalo  to  fifty-five  cents  in  Manchester,  New 
Hampshire,  although  its  cheapness  in  the  latter  named  city  is 
due  obviously  to  the  nearness  of  granite  quarries. 

Traffic  streets  must  be  paved  regardless  of  cost. 

Granite  block  is  serviceable  for  so  few  streets  in  the  average 
city  that  there  has  been  a  very  wide  use  of  sheet  asphalt.  This 
pavement  has  given  such  satisfaction  for  many  purposes  that 
it  had  promised  to  supersede  others  until  the  cities  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  methods  employed  by  those  who  promoted  its 
use.  Sheet  asphalt  is  a  term  applied  to  pavements  in  which 
the  usual  macadam  or  concrete  foundation  is  surfaced  with  a 
thin  layer  of  asphalt  mixed  while  hot  with  sand  or  pulverized 
rock.  It  is  a  pavement  that  lends  itself  to  comfortable  use  by 
any  vehicle.  It  is  easy  to  keep  clean  and  comparatively  noise- 
less. The  chief  objections  are  its  refraction  of  heat,  and  its 
slipperiness,  making  it  a  dangerous  pavement  for  horses  in  wet 
weather  and  one  on  which  auto  vehicles  easily  skid. 


58  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  cost  of  this  pavement  is  almost  as  erratic  as  that  ot 
Belgian  block,  varying  from  $1.28  a  square  yard  in  the 
Borough  of  the  Bronx,  New  York,  to  $3.25  in  Boston.  The 
average  cost  is  midway  between  these  sums.  Nearly  200 
miles  of  sheet  asphalt  are  laid  or  relaid  every  year.^  Asphalt 
seems  to  be  following  the  Star  of  Empire,  as  it  is  used  increas- 
ingly in  western  cities,  while  being  abandoned  in  eastern  cities. 
This  is  due  not  only  to  the  blunders  of  the  asphalt  promoters 
and  the  competition  of  other  kinds  of  paving,  but  also  to  the 
use  of  the  material  in  another  form  —  block  asphalt.  New 
York  has  132  miles  of  this  paving  and  many  other  cities 
have  experimented  in  it.  Its  cost  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  sheet  asphalt. 

Most  cities  with  over  20,000  population  have  had  their  fling 
with  asphalt. 

Other  Substantial  Pavements 

An  early  competitor  of  sheet  asphalt  among  substantial  pave- 
ments was  brick.  It  is  used  very  extensively  in  small  cities 
where  Belgian  block  has  never  been  employed.  It  is  also  im- 
proving constantly  as  superior  vitrified  brick  is  made.  Brick 
is  noisier  than  asphalt,  but  not  so  noisy  as  Belgian  block.  It 
is  comparatively  easily  cleaned  and  suitable  for  fairly  heavy 
traffic.  When  properly  laid  on  a  good  concrete  foundation,  it 
ought  to  last  fifteen  years.  The  cost  of  brick  paving  varies 
from  $1  in  Akron,  Ohio,  to  $3.80  in  Butte,  Montana.  Cleve- 
land leads  in  the  amount  of  brick  paving  with  261  miles.^ 

There  is  no  geographical  limitation  to  the  use  of  brick  except 
that  a  clay  bank  is  handy. 

A  cheaper  surface  and  a  comparatively  substantial  paving 
has  been  discovered  in  concrete.  This  material,  that  has  been 
used  as  a  foundation  for  most  good  pavements,  is  discovered  to 
be  satisfactory  also  as  a  surface.  Sometimes  it  is  laid  with  a 
protecting  coat  of  bitumen,  sometimes  without  it.  It  costs  no 
more  than  macadam  and  has  almost  the  serviceability  of  the 

'The  cities  that  have  used  asphalt  most  extensively  are  New  York  (812  miles), 
Chicago  (468),  Philadelphia  (464),  BufiFalo,  Pittsburgh,  San  Francisco,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  and  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  these  cities  alone  having  2500  miles  of 
streets  paved  with  sheet  asphalt. 

*  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Columbus,  Toledo  and  Detroit  each  have  over 
100  miles  of  brick  paving. 


THE   CITY   STREET  59 

costly  pavements.  When  the  bituminous  surface  is  omitted, 
it  is  not  so  resiUent  as  asphalt  or  creosoted  wood  block,  and  it 
has  a  greater  glare  than  either.  At  an  additional  cost  of  ten 
cents  a  square  yard  a  thin  surface  may  be  added  to  remove 
these  objections,  but  requiring  frequent  renewal.  Sioux  City 
and  Mason  City,  Iowa,  and  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  testify  that 
concrete  with  a  thin  surface  dressing  is  the  least  expensive 
pavement  in  the  long  run.  The  concrete  pavement  in  Sioux 
City  is  only  five  inches  deep,  but  that  is  due  to  a  very  favorable 
subsoil. 

Corn  is  not  the  only  thing  for  which  Iowa's  soil  is  good. 

The  experiment  in  Ann  Arbor  was  due  to  the  city  engineer's 
prolonging  the  life  of  asphalt  block  pavements  by  covering  the 
surface  with  a  thin  coating  of  coal  tar  and  sand.  The  result 
was  so  satisfactory  that  he  inaugurated  the  plan  of  using  it  on 
a  mere  concrete  base.  After  the  concrete  has  hardened  the 
surface  is  sprinkled  with  hot  bitumen,  just  as  oil  is  now  applied 
to  roads.  In  1910  Ann  Arbor  laid  its  own  pavement  by  city 
labor  at  a  cost  of  ninety-four  cents  to  $1.16  per  square  yard. 
The  success  and  economy  of  this  pavement  have  caused  it  to  be 
used  very  extensively  by  street  railway  companies  between 
their  rails.  Many  small  Ohio  towns  claim  to  have  used  con- 
crete pavement  for  fifteen  or  twenty  years  and  that  it  is  still 
giving  satisfaction.  So  large  a  city  as  Kansas  City,  Missouri, 
has  been  experimenting  on  the  heaviest  traffic  streets  and  reports 
success. 

The  experience  of  some  eastern  cities  would  indicate  that  an 
Iowa  subsoil  is  necessary  for  a  successful  concrete  pavement. 

Another  competitor  has  arisen  to  contest  the  preeminence  of 
substantial  paving.  Bitulithic  pavement  is  a  surface  of  bitu- 
minous concrete  —  a  cross  between  macadam  and  asphalt. 
The  coating  of  small  stone  chips  makes  this  pavement  more 
satisfactory  in  wet  weather  than  asphalt.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
smooth,  easily  cleaned,  as  noiseless  as  any  paving,  and  much 
more  satisfactory  for  steep  grades  than  other  smooth  pave- 
ments. It  is  not  satisfactory  for  heavy  traffic,  but  is  much 
superior  to  macadam  in  residential  districts  and  has  a  serv- 
iceable life  of  ten  years.  It  costs  about  the  same  as  asphalt. 
St,  Louis  leads  with  34  miles  of  bitulithic  pavement,  Port- 
land, Oregon,  following  with  31  miles,  but  many  cities  east  and 


6o  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

west  have  found  satisfaction  in  the  small  amount  that  they 
have  thus  far  introduced. 

Bitulithic  pavement  is  a  patented  luxury. 

Wood  and  Macadam 

An  expensive  but  very  satisfactory  pavement,  on  account  of 
its  cleanliness  and  noiselessness,  is  creosoted  wood  block.  This 
most  popular  pavement  in  European  cities  is  still  the  most 
expensive  in  America,  in  spite  of  our  abundant  forests.  The 
cost  is  generally  over  $3  a  square  yard.  Minneapolis  has  sixty 
miles  of  creosoted  wood  block,  Indianapolis  and  New  York  each 
over  twenty.  This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  wretched 
cedar  block  pavement  of  earlier  days  which  gave  scarcely  better 
service  than  corduroy  roads.  Minneapolis  lays  the  smoothly 
squared  yellow  pine  blocks  on  a  foundation  of  six  inches  of 
cement  concrete,  over  which  is  spread  a  one-inch  cushion  of 
sand.  The  work  is  all  day  labor,  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  $2.40 
for  an  eight-hour  day,  and  the  cost  is  about  $2.50  a  square  yard. 
The  pavement  laid  in  1902  is  still  giving  satisfaction. 

What  Minneapolis  has  learned  from  creosoted  w'ood  block 
might  be  applied  to  any  pavement  elsewhere.  The  materials 
must  be  satisfactory  —  the  best  wood  and  oil  —  and  also  the 
amount  of  oil  and  its  treatment.  The  blocks  must  be  laid  and 
the  joints  filled  properly,  and  the  pavement  constantly  cared 
for.  In  spite  of  the  expensiveness  of  this  pavement,  there  must 
be  500  miles  of  it  in  American  cities  now.  For  satisfactory 
service  it  should  be  sprinkled  with  sand  in  wet  weather,  which 
indicates  that  it  cannot  be  used  on  excessive  grades.  It  is, 
therefore,  an  ideal  pavement  on  the  main  streets  of  large  cities 
where  there  must  necessarily  be  an  expensive  pavement. 

Three  generations  of  wood  —  corduroy  roads,  cedar  block, 
creosoted  pine ! 

The  most  extensive  paving  in  American  cities  is  macadam, 
on  account  of  its  cheapness.  Macadam  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved by  using  oil  instead  of  water  as  a  binder.  Sacramento 
blazed  the  way  in  this  experiment,  and  the  country  roads  of 
California  and  park  drives  of  many  cities  west  and  east  have  been 
benefited  by  the  process.  The  use  of  oil  for  the  laying  of  dust  is 
partly  responsible  for  the  experiments  in  oil-bound  macadam. 


THE   CITY   STREET  6l 

There  is  now  no  excuse  for  dust>-  roads  or  water  sprinklers,  as 
oil  may  be  applied  so  that  for  ordinary  traffic  the  macadam  road 
is  pleasanter  than  any  other  kind.  The  most  extensive  use  of 
oil  or  tar  as  a  dust  preventive  is  in  Boston,  where  6,000,000 
square  yards  (between  300  and  400  miles)  of  road  are  so  treated.^ 
Oil  is  good  for  troubled  roads  as  well  as  troubled  waters. 

Tearing  Up  and  Down  the  Street 

The  advent  of  the  automobile  has  ushered  in  a  new  era  in 
street  making.  Motor  cars  and  trucks  are  very  injurious  to 
any  pavement.  But  their  multiplication  has  necessitated  a 
constant  increase  and  improvement  of  paving.  The  damage  to 
the  streets  by  the  joy  riders  or  jitney  drivers  may  be  inevitable, 
but  before  they  began  tearing  down  the  street  the  public  utility 
corporation  was  tearing  up  the  street. 

One  of  the  most  diverting  municipal  pastimes  is  tearing  up 
the  street  just  after  it  has  been  laid.  This  is  an  almost  uni- 
versal practice  of  city  authorities  and  private  corporations  to  test 
out  American  pavements.  No  pavement  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered that  can  stand  the  test.  The  best  foundation  and  sur- 
facing, with  a  proper  backbone  to  give  drainage  into  the  gutters, 
can  never  again  be  as  durable  after  it  has  been  cut  open  for 
pipes  or  conduits.  This  has  been  mainly  due  to  lack  of  respect 
for  street  pa\ang  and  the  incredible  privileges  conferred  upon 
private  corporations.  A  Chicago  Commission  on  Downtown 
Improvement,  appointed  by  the  city  council,  discovered  that 
ten  acres  of  pavement  on  the  downtown  streets  are  torn  up 
every  year  at  an  expense  of  over  $200,000. 

A  street  with  a  broken  backbone  is  little  better  than  a  spine- 
less man. 

Cities  usually  have  no  adequate  record  of  the  subsurface 
contents.  Philadelphia  inid  tne  Borough  of  Brooklyn  have  made 
complete  surveys  of  underground  structures  so  that  they  can 
now  be  located  as  well  as  those  above  the  surface.  Most  cities 
have  regulations  providing  for  advertisement  notifying  corpora- 
tions and  individuals  that  work  must  be  done  before  the  street 

>The  other  cities  that  have  treated  more  than  1,000,000  square  yards  of  street 
are  New  York,  Buffalo,  New  Bedford  and  Los  Angeles.  Kansas  City,  Detroit 
and  Portland,  Oregon,  are  treating  over  one-half  million  square  yards. 


62  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

is  paved,  but  these  have  not  been  enforced,  Cincinnati  has  a 
good  law  providing  that  the  two  final  steps  in  legislation  for  the 
improvement  of  the  street  shall  be  indicated  to  all  public  service 
corporations.  They  are  notified  again  when  the  bids  are  re- 
ceived and  when  the  contractor  is  ordered  to  begin  work.  Thus 
they  have  ample  time  for  repairs,  renewals  or  extensions.  A 
pavement  may  not  be  opened  for  three  years  after  laying  except 
in  certain  emergencies,  which  make  unhappy  loopholes  for 
former  methods.  If  a  street  does  not  include  the  necessary 
water  and  sewer  mains,  they  must  be  put  in  before  it  is  paved, 
and  property  owners  must  make  their  house  connections  whether 
there  is  a  house  or  not.  Otherwise,  the  city  makes  them  and 
assesses  the  cost  on  the  property.  This  is  preliminary  to  the 
method  that  will  some  day  be  employed  by  all  cities  of  putting 
in  comprehensive  conduits  and  tunnels  and  permitting  no  private 
agency  to  disturb  a  street. 

A  loophole  that  provides  for  a  belated  manhole  guarantees  a 
mudhole. 

Overhead  Wires 

The  disfigurement  of  American  city  streets  by  poles  and  wires 
has  been  due  not  only  to  the  expense  of  constructing  conduits, 
but  to  the  increased  burden  of  a  number  of  separate  systems  of 
wires.  The  persistence  of  antiquated  competitive  methods  has 
led  to  the  granting  of  franchises  to  more  than  one  company  for 
the  same  service  in  the  same  street.  It  is  not  invidious  to  cite 
Los  Angeles  as  an  awful  example  because  it  has  also  led  western 
cities  in  putting  its  wires  underground  and  introducing  orna- 
mental lighting.  Los  Angeles  was  at  one  time  afflicted  with 
two  trolley  companies,  two  telephone  companies,  two  telegraph 
companies,  three  electric  light  companies  and  police  and  fire 
alarm  services. 

The  city  of  the  angels  has  begun  to  clear  the  heavens. 

The  underground  conduits  in  St.  Louis  are  now  used  by 
fifteen  separate  organizations,  those  in  Boston  by  nineteen 
organizations.  The  progress  of  putting  wires  underground  in 
the  face  of  these  difficulties  has  been  most  gratifying.  Boston 
has  improved  upon  Los  Angeles  in  carrying  a  large  part  of  the 
growing  volume  of  electrical  circuits  in  its  subway  trenches  or 
on  the  bridge  by  which  the  subway  system  crosses  the  Charles 


THE   CITY   STREET  63 

River.  Chicago  has  found  the  conduit  system  so  great  a  pro- 
tection against  storms,  fires  and  other  interferences  with  over- 
head wires  that  the  telephone  company  has  voluntarily  put 
wires  in  subways  in  the  residence  districts. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  National  Electric  Light  Asso- 
ciation resolved  "that  the  scheme  of  placing  electric  light  and 
power  cables  underground  is  commercially  impracticable." 

The  economy  of  conduits  is  evidenced  especially  in  the  small 
cities  that  have  built  them.  Utica,  New  York,  a  city  of  about 
70,000,  has  a  municipal  system  of  ducts  that  provided  in  1907 
an  annual  rental  of  nearly  $2000  for  the  use  of  51,000  feet  of 
ducts  costing  about  $19,000.  The  little  town  of  Penn  Yan, 
New  York,  has  built  a  conduit  less  than  half  a  mile  long  through 
the  street  that  contains  most  of  the  business  houses.  It  pro- 
vides for  both  high  and  low  tension  wires.  The  municipal 
lighting  system  of  the  village  uses  the  conduit,  along  with  the 
telephone  and  telegraph  companies.  The  latter  pay  five  cents 
per  duct  foot  per  year.  Other  companies  have  evaded  this  re- 
quirement by  using  side  streets.^ 

The  number  of  cities  in  which  there  are  private  conduits  is 
legion. 

New  York's  Buried  Wires  and  Hopes 

The  initial  step  in  burying  wires  was  taken  in  1883  when  the 
Board  of  Aldermen  of  New  York  City  passed  an  ordinance 
requiring  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  to  pay  the 
city  one  cent  per  lineal  foot  of  street  opened  for  wires  or  tubes 
and  to  give  the  police  and  fire  departments  each  the  use  of  one 
free  wire.  The  first  subways  for  this  purpose  were  constructed 
in  1886  and  the  companies  were  required  to  pay  the  expense  of 
the  municipal  commission  and  of  the  construction  of  the  sub- 
way. These  companies  were  absorbed  by  the  Consolidated 
Electrical  and  Subway  Company.  Its  franchise  provided  that 
the  city  should  receive  all  revenues  over  10  per  cent  of  the  net 
earnings.  In  1890  the  Board  of  Electrical  Control  dictated  the 
rental  to  be  paid  by  corporations  to  the  Consolidated  Electrical 

'  Cities  that  have  built  over  icx)  miles  of  municipal  conduit  are  Detroit,  Mil- 
waukee, Chicago  and  Philadelphia.  Cities  with  over  50  miles  are  Seattle,  New 
York  and  Boston.  In  all  of  these  except  Philadelphia  the  conduits  are  for  the 
use  of  the  city  only. 


54  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

and  Telegraph  Subway  Company,  but  the  bookkeeping  of  the 
company  had  not  by  1900  indicated  higher  profits  than  6.28 
per  cent.  When  it  was  found  that  high  and  low  tension  wires 
could  not  be  operated  in  the  same  conduit  without  danger,  the 
Empire  Subway  Company  was  chartered  to  develop  a  low  ten- 
sion system.  They  have  not  even  had  to  report  what  their 
profits  have  been. 

The  New  York  public  still  enjoys  the  fate  that  Commodore 
Vanderbilt  is  reported  to  have  prescribed ! 

When  the  underground  conduit  trolley  system  was  introduced 
there  was  need  of  another  extensive  development  of  conduits 
and  subways.  The  Metropolitan  Street  Railway  Company 
was  granted  permission  to  put  down  conduits  for  its  own  use, 
and  it  was  discovered  that  the  provision  was  much  greater  than 
the  trolley  system  required.  Other  underground  construction 
in  New  York  has  been  made  by  the  Tubular  Dispatch  Company, 
which  began  to  provide  for  the  transmission  of  mail  matter  by 
tubes  in  1897  under  an  old  charter  obtained  from  the  legisla- 
ture in  1874.  As  the  consent  of  the  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works  had  to  be  secured  before  the  company  could  lay  tubes, 
he  insisted  on  a  payment  to  the  city  of  a  percentage  of  the  gross 
receipts  —  2  per  cent  for  the  second  year.  The  Manhattan 
Refrigerating  Company  also  buries  pipes,  for  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  pay  5  per  cent  of  its  gross  receipts  to  the  city.  There 
has  been  no  endeavor  to  use  the  subways  of  the  Rapid  Transit 
system  for  the  pipes  and  wires  that  could  easily  be  incorporated 
in  its  tunnels. 

The  latest  estimates  indicate  18,000  miles  of  electrical  con- 
duits and  subways,  but  no  effective  control. 

Baltimore  and  Washington 

One  notable  by-product  of  the  Baltimore  fire  has  been  the 
burying  of  her  wires.  Baltimore  not  only  has  a  larger  municipal 
conduit  system  than  any  other  city,  but  probably  has  done 
more  than  all  of  the  cities  in  America  in  municipal  provision 
for  buried  wires.  The  Electrical  Commission  is  spending 
$2,000,000,  of  which  half  a  million  was  spent  in  191 3,  on  a  sub- 
way system  for  wires.  Up  to  January,  1914,  Baltimore  had 
built  178  miles  of  conduit.     There  is  a  separate  system  of  26^ 


THE   CITY   STREET  65 

miles  of  conduit  for  fire  and  police  telegraph.  The  telephone 
company  has  over  fifty  miles  of  its  own  conduit.  Nearly 
3,000,000  feet  of  cable  are  operated  in  the  municipal  conduit 
system,  giving  the  city  an  annual  revenue  of  $128,000,  which 
does  not  include  $15,000  that  ought  to  be  credited  to  the  city 
for  the  municipal  services  carried  in  the  conduits. 

This  has  all  been  done  in  spite  of  the  necessity  of  operating 
through  three  commissions  —  electrical,  paving,  and  opening 
streets  commissions. 

The  city  of  Washington  has  dealt  more  effectively  with  its 
overhead  wires,  including  trolleys,  than  any  other  city.  Up  to 
June  30,  1913,  the  street  railways  had  nearly  1,000,000  feet  of 
conduit,  the  telephone  company  nearly  700,000  feet  and  the 
telegraph  companies  nearly  100,000,  making  a  total  of  1,800,000 
feet,  not  including  over  two  miles  of  Federal  conduit  and  pipe 
lines.  The  result  of  this  comprehensive  system  is  to  give  Wash- 
ington not  only  the  protection  of  these  indispensable  services 
against  storm  and  fire,  but  the  best  looking  streets  in  America. 
The  sleet  and  slush  of  Washington's  mild  climate  make  a  severer 
test  of  the  merits  of  buried  wires  than  the  wind  storms  and 
blizzards  of  northern  and  western  cities. 

In  the  disposal  of  overhead  wires  Washington  excels  in  civic 
art,  Baltimore  in  municipal  science. 

Competition  in  Municipal  Lighting 

The  dimly  lighted  cities  of  earlier  days  excelled  primitive 
cities  only  in  the  number  of  their  feeble  gas  lights.^  The  light- 
ing of  cities  is  an  art,  as  well  as  a  science,  in  which  significant 
progress  is  confined  to  the  period  since  the  introduction  of 
electricity.  The  brilliancy  of  electric  lighting  led  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  gas  mantle.  This  restored  the  fading  profits  of  gas 
plants.  The  first  experimental  municipal  gas  plants  were  badly 
managed,  —  notably  that  at  Philadelphia,  —  but  still  compared 
favorably  in  service  and  price  with  private  plants.  Private 
gas  companies  in  Boston  and  Indianapolis  are  compelled  to 
make  low  rates  by  sliding  scale  franchises.  These  permit  an 
increased  dividend  whenever  the  price  of  gas  is  lowered. 

1  The  first  public  lighting  was  installed  in  Baltimore  in  1821,  in  Boston  in  1822, 
in  New  York  in  1823.     Electricity  appeared  in  1878. 

V 


66  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

A  public  utility  corporation  makes  most  of  its  improvements 
under  compulsion. 

Reduction  in  the  price  of  gas  in  large  cities,  like  New  York, 
Chicago  and  Philadelphia,  to  eighty-five  cents  or  less  is  due 
largely  to  the  competition  of  electricity.  Indianapolis  and 
some  Ohio  cities,  near  coal  mines  and  in  competition  with 
natural  gas,  sell  artificial  gas  for  fifty-five  cents  a  thousand  cubic 
feet.  The  cost  for  arc  lights  in  the  Detroit  and  Cleveland 
municipal  plants  is  about  $50  a  year.  Private  corporations  in 
Cleveland,  Spokane,  Toledo  and  St.  Louis  do  as  well. 
Topeka,  Kansas,  and  some  small  cities  furnish  arc  lights  still 
more  cheaply.  Detailed  comparisons  are  futile  for  the  layman, 
as  the  efficiency  of  both  private  and  municipal  plants  varies 
inexcusably.  The  most  important  considerations  are  that 
economy  is  almost  universally  due  either  to  access  to  coal  or 
the  competition  of  municipal  plants.  The  municipal  gas  plants 
of  Richmond  and  WTieeling  have  not  only  paid  for  themselves, 
but  continue  to  furnish  cheap  gas  in  spite  of  management  that 
is  not  above  reproach.  Their  service  to  other  cities  in  demon- 
strating the  possibility  of  municipal  ownership  has  been  in- 
valuable. 

If  municipal  ownership  had  the  freedom  of  private  enterprise, 
there  would  be  no  argument  for  the  latter. 

Philadelphia  is  one  of  the  best  lighted  cities  in  the  country. 
It  is  a  city  with  numerous  courts  and  alleys  where  lights  are  of 
great  importance  and  it  probably  illuminates  these  obscure 
places  better  than  any  other  community.  This  is  in  part  due 
to  the  fact  that  nearly  24,000  gas  lamps  are  furnished  free  to 
the  city  by  the  United  Gas  Improvement  Company  in  considera- 
tion of  the  liberal  privileges  granted  that  corporation.  The 
company's  generosity  is  indicated  in  the  substitution  of  in- 
candescent mantles  for  flat  burners  on  this  immense  number  of 
lamps.  The  illuminating  quality  has  thus  been  increased  from 
22  to  60  candle  power. 

Philadelphia  paid  for  19,000  gasoline  lamps  and  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Bureau  of  Lighting  over  half  a  million 
dollars  in  191 2.  The  city  also  paid  $3,000,000  in  191 2  for  elec- 
tric lighting,  half  of  which  was  for  underground  construction 
and  maintenance.  There  is  a  movement  to  have  gas  substituted 
for  gasoline  because  this  service  comes  under  the  city's  contract 


THE   CITY   STREET  67 

with  the  United  Gas  Improvement  Company  and  would  in- 
volve over  $400,000  worth  of  extensions  to  the  physical  plant 
that  will  become  the  property  of  the  city  in  1927.  One  of  the 
results  of  this  compHcated  system  of  private  lighting  is  that 
Philadelphia  has  many  lamps  in  unpopulated  regions  and 
sometimes  lights  of  two  systems  side  by  side.  Philadelphia 
has  about  the  same  number  of  electric  lights  as  Chicago,  which 
gives  it  a  great  advantage  over  its  smaller  area,  having  108 
lamps  per  square  mile  to  Chicago's  77.  The  superior  volume 
of  light  in  Philadelphia  is  thus  evident  because  Chicago  has 
only  about  half  as  many  gas  lamps  as  Philadelphia. 

The  municipal  departments  are  increasingly  vigilant,  but 
have  to  cope  with  antiquated  franchises.  Philadelphia  has 
made  a  notable  step  forward  recently  in  the  organization  of  an 
Electrical  Bureau  under  its  Department  of  Public  Safety. 
This  means  divided  authority  at  present,  but  it  results  in  an 
inspection  work  that  will  bear  fruit.  In  1913,  725  dangerous 
poles,  652  defective  overhead  wires,  and  many  other  menacing 
conditions  were  removed.  Eight  hundred  and  forty-five  tests 
were  made  to  see  that  the  arc  lighting  system  was  adequate. 
Theaters  and  moving-picture  shows  are  investigated  by  this 
department. 

Philadelphia's  yoke  seems  easy,  for  its  burden  is  light. 

New  York  is  adopting  the  gas-filled  incandescent  lamp  in 
place  of  the  arc  lamp.  By  displacing  half  of  its  17,500  arc 
lamps  in  1915  a  saving  of  half  a  million  dollars  was  effected. 
The  magnitude  of  lighting  in  a  city  like  New  York  is  worthy  of 
mention  because  it  indicates  the  enormous  extension  of  municipal 
services.  Greater  New  York  is  lighted  by  a  total  of  over  80,000 
lamps,  furnished  by  twenty-eight  lighting  companies.  Over 
30,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  is  consumed  annually,  for  which 
the  public  paid  $34,000,000  in  1913.  At  the  same  time  it  paid 
nearly  $30,000,000  for  electricity.  If  the  cost  of  electric  trans- 
portation be  added,  we  find  that  New  Yorkers  paid  $30  per 
capita  for  electric  and  gas  service  in  one  year. 

Tribute  cannot  much  longer  be  paid  to  private  enterprise  in 
the  face  of  the  wide  success  of  municipal  ownership. 

Holyoke,  Massachusetts,  furnishes  both  gas  and  electricity 
from  its  municipal  plant.  While  somewhat  more  than  doubling 
its  output  in  ten  years  and  trebling  the  gas  meters  installed,  it 


68  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

has  reduced  the  price  of  gas  from  $1.35  to  ninety  cents  (the 
private  company  had  sold  gas  at  $1.35).  Its  output  of  elec- 
tricity is  ten  times  what  it  was  when  it  began  to  operate  the 
municipal  plant.  There  are  nearly  twenty  times  as  many 
patrons.  The  price  of  arc  lights  has  been  reduced  from  $100 
to  S45,  and  the  net  price  of  electricity  to  private  consumers  per 
kilowatt  hour  has  been  reduced  from  eighteen  cents  to  six  cents 
in  ten  years.  South  Hadley  buys  electricity  from  Holyoke  at 
two  cents,  delivered  at  the  town  line.  Holyoke,  in  buying  the 
two  plants,  originally  spent  $700,000  to  which  it  has  added 
over  $1,000,000.  This  success  has  been  attained  without 
mtroducing  the  latest  economical  devices  for  disposing  of  the 
by-products  of  coal  gas. 

Norwich,  Connecticut,  has  a  $200,000  plant,  furnishing  both 
gas  and  electricity  at  a  profit. 

Duluth  operates  under  its  Water  and  Light  Department  a 
water  and  gas  plant  and  is  reaching  out  for  electricity.  In 
1913  Duluth  enjoyed  a  net  profit  from  water  of  over  $132,000, 
and  from  gas  of  $34,000,  making  a  total  of  nearly  $167,000. 
Gas  has  been  reduced  in  price  from  $1  for  fuel  gas  and  $1.90 
for  illuminating  gas  in  1898  to  seventy-five  cents  for  each  in 
1905.     Gas  is  now  sold  for  heating  at  fifty  cents. 

Municipal  cooperation  is  safer  than  municipal  perquisites. 

Municipal  Electricity 

There  is  a  constant  increase  in  the  number  of  municipal  elec- 
tric lighting  plants.  They  increase  three  times  as  fast  as  the 
commercial  plants,  but  their  income  does  not  advance  so  fast. 
The  commercial  companies  control  the  big  cities.  In  191 2 
there  were  3659  commercial  lighting  plants,  an  increase  of  30 
per  cent  in  ten  years,  and  1562  municipal  plants,  an  increase  of 
91  per  cent,  operating  at  a  profit  of  over  six  miUions.^ 

Chicago  owns  a  municipal  electric  light  plant  valued  at 
about  four  million  dollars,  allowing  one-third  for  its  deprecia- 
tion from  the  original  investment.  The  actual  cash  cost  of 
lighting  an  arc  lamp  is  $31.32  a  year.  With  all  expenses  added 
to  make  comparison  with  private  lighting,  the  expense  is  $56 

'  See  Appendix  i  for  further  comparisons  of  private  and  public  plants. 


THE   CITY   STREET  69 

a  year.  This  compares  favorably  wilh  $75  paid  for  additional 
lights  to  a  private  company  with  a  lower  wage  scale.  Chicago 
is  entering  upon  a  new  era  in  public  lighting  because  of  the 
service  furnished  by  the  Sanitary  District  from  its  power  plant. 
This  will  increase  the  number  of  arc  lights  nearly  50  per  cent 
and  make  still  more  formidable  competition  with  private  com- 
panies. 

Cleveland's  success  with  a  three-cent  fare  on  the  street  rail- 
way may  have  been  responsible  for  its  determination  to  furnish 
electricity  at  three  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  (one  cent  to  the 
largest  consumers).  A  new  $2,000,000  plant  gives  Cleveland 
the  latest  scientific  and  economic  facilities.  Although  it  had 
already  had  electricity  for  four  cents  from  an  antiquated  subur- 
ban plant,  the  new  system  effects  economy  by  linking  up  four 
difTerent  plants.  Of  course  Cleveland  enjoys  the  advantage  of 
easy  access  to  both  water  and  coal,  but  its  economical  municipal 
administration  is  partly  responsible. 

Electricity  is  cheap  enough  for  cooking  in  Cleveland,  and 
extended  consumption  will  make  it  available  for  heating. 

Three  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  is  not  a  Utopian  rate,  as  is 
shown  by  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  which  furnishes  electricity  for 
cooking  at  that  figure.  Jacksonville,  Florida,  remote  from  a 
coal  supply,  has  a  cooking  and  heating  rate  of  two  cents  per 
kilowatt  hour.  This  is  the  result  of  a  profit  in  1913  of  $350,000. 
In  ten  years'  time  the  city  put  $1,200,000  into  extensions  and 
improvements  and  $600,000  into  the  city  treasury.  It  is  said 
that  this  contribution  amounts  to  one-third  of  the  city's  taxes. 

The  New  South  is  throwing  light  on  municipal  ownership. 

South  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  is  one  of  the  numerous  eastern 
cities  ranking  with  Jacksonville.  For  over  twenty  years  it  has 
furnished  successful  municipal  electric  light.  It  erected  a 
modest  plant  in  1892  at  a  cost  of  $20,000.  The  service  was  so 
satisfactory  that  the  investment  was  duplicated  in  1897  to 
furnish  commercial  lighting.  Five  successive  enlargements 
followed.  The  management  has  been  such  that  the  floating 
debt  is  eliminated.  A  $200,000  investment  has  been  paid  for 
from  the  profits,  while  selling  electricity  cheaper  than  any  other 
plant  in  the  state. 

The  Pasadena  authorities  estimate  that  in  five  years'  time 
the  competition  of  the  municipal  plant  has  saved  the  citizens 


70  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

nearly  three-fourths  of  a  million  dollars  over  what  they  might 
have  paid.  They  were  paying  fifteen  cents  per  kilowatt  hour 
when  the  city  began  discussing  municipal  ownership.  The  price 
of  the  private  company  came  steadily  down  until  it  reached 
seven  cents,  which  is  two  cents  more  than  Pasadena's  municipal 
plant  charges  for  lighting  service.  The  private  company  that 
serves  a  large  number  of  California  cities  has  been  hammering 
at  Pasadena  with  a  lower  rate  than  it  charges  elsewhere.  Arc 
lighting  costs  $60  in  Pasadena,  compared  with  $76  in  Los 
Angeles. 

Pasadena  has  had  an  illuminating  history  with  its  illumination. 

Seattle  Lighting 

Seattle  has  an  electric  plant  that  has  grown  in  a  cumulative 
way  during  the  eight  years  of  its  existence.^  The  Cedar  River, 
from  which  Seattle's  municipal  light  and  power  system  draws 
its  water,  is  a  stream  rising  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  flow- 
ing into  Lake  Washington,  which  has  recently  been  connected 
by  canal  with  Puget  Sound.  Water  is  stored  in  Cedar  Lake,  a 
mountain  lake  about  three  miles  long,  at  an  elevation  of  1500 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  Cedar  River  flows  through  a  rocky 
gorge  for  three  and  a  half  miles.  Where  it  enters  a  level  valley 
the  generating  plant  is  located.  Power  is  transmitted  to  Seattle 
by  two  lines  over  thirty-six  miles  long. 

In  this  case  the  mountain  yields  to  Mahomet. 

This  immense  supply  enables  Seattle  to  have  exceptionally 
well  lighted  streets.  Cluster  lights  are  used  for  the  most  part, 
except  in  the  parks  where  a  single  globe  suffices.  An  eighty- 
candle  nitrogen  lamp  is  found  to  give  the  best  service  in  the 
Seattle  streets.     Burning  all  night,  there  are  4000  burning  hours 

•  The  Seattle  electric  light  plant  was  initiated  by  a  bond  issue  of  $5go,ooo  in  igo2. 
In  1904  a  quarter  of  a  million  was  added  to  enable  the  plant  to  do  commercial  light- 
ing. The  patronage  was  so  great  that  another  bond  issue  of  $600,000  was  author- 
ized in  igo6,  and  still  another  of  $800,000  in  1908.  Then  it  became  necessary  not 
only  to  enlarge  the  plant,  but  to  increase  its  power,  which  it  secures  from  the  Cedar 
River.  One  million  four  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  bonds  were  issued  in  1910. 
The  city  has  already  paid  back  $1,700,000  out  of  its  earnings.  Although  two  rate 
reductions  have  been  made,  the  earnings  have  increased  from  over  $700,000  in  191 1 
to  over  $900,000  in  1913.  In  those  two  years,  after  paying  operation,  maintenance, 
interest  and  depreciation  charges  and  establishing  a  sinking  fund,  there  was  a  sur- 
plus of  $434,000. 


THE   CITY   STREET  7 1 

per  year.  Seattle's  great  white  ways  extend  over  twenty-five 
miles  of  street.  The  wiring  is  all  underground.  The  city 
lighting  system  lights,  in  addition  to  this,  829  miles  of  street. 

In  1913  the  rates  averaged  less  than  six  cents  per  kilowatt 
hour  for  residence  lighting,  less  than  three  cents  for  business 
lighting,  and  one  and  one-half  cents  for  power.  There  were 
numerous  instances  of  large  consumers  enjoying  lower  rates. 
The  private  lighting  plant  was  charging  twenty  cents  per 
kilowatt  hour  before  the  municipal  plant  was  projected.  When 
the  construction  of  the  latter  began  the  private  rate  went  down 
to  twelve  cents.  The  price  has  gone  down  steadily  since  the 
municipal  plant  began  operation,  the  private  plant  following 
in  the  wake  of  the  municipal  plant,  so  that  although  the  municipal 
plant  cannot  serve  the  entire  city,  it  determines  the  rates  for 
the  city.  Seattle  has  the  advantage  of  water  power  and  of 
cooperation  with  the  water  system  of  the  city,  but  it  has  long 
transmission  of  electricity  both  to  the  city  and  about  the  city. 

The  lighting  department  has  been  experimenting  in  the  heat- 
ing of  two  kinds  of  houses  —  concrete  and  frame  —  and  keep- 
ing an  accurate  record  of  all  the  details  of  the  experiment,  but 
is  not  yet  able  to  make  domestic  heating  economical.  It  has, 
however,  developed  an  immense  patronage  for  electric  cooking, 
making  a  rate  of  three  cents  per  kilowatt  hour.  The  average 
monthly  rate  of  householders  for  electricity  for  cooking  for  two 
years  was  about  $3. 

Seattle  presents  a  striking  illustration  of  the  success  of  mu- 
nicipal ownership  and  the  helplessness  of  citizens  under  private 
ownership. 

Ornamental  Lighting 

Next  to  the  volume  of  illumination  —  marked  by  tungsten  arc 
lights,  incandescent  gas  lights  and  the  great  multiplication  in 
the  number  of  both  —  the  greatest  improvement  in  public 
lighting  has  been  in  ornamental  standards.  When  electricity 
was  first  introduced,  electric  lights  were  frequently  suspended 
from  unsightly  wooden  poles  at  street  intersections  or  pro- 
jected from  wooden  poles  interspersed  among  the  similar  trolley 
and  telephone  poles,  or  put  upon  huge  towers,  until  the  street 
was  made  hideous  in  the  daytime  that  it  might  be  illuminated  at 
night.     Los  Angeles  set  the  pace  for  other  American  cities  by 


72 


AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


the  establishment  of  what  are  now  popularly  known  as  "great 
white  ways."  The  merchants  of  Los  Angeles  collected  funds 
for  the  erection  of  cast-iron  ornamental  posts  on  three  of  the 
central  business  streets.  One  hundred  and  thirty-five  such 
posts  were  erected,  the  city  undertaking  to  provide  the  additional 
electricity  for  cluster  liglits.  Globes  containing  incandescent 
lights  were  substituted  for  arc  lights.  This  form  of  Hghting,  as 
well  as  the  method  of  inaugurating  the  system,  has  prevailed 
all  over  the  country.  In  Los  Angeles  to-day,  as  in  most  pro- 
gressive cities,  the  lighting  standards  are  erected  by  district 
assessment.^ 

It  is  now  unusual  to  find  a  city  without  at  least  one  such  illu- 
minated business  street. 

Some  cities,  like  Seattle  and  Chicago,  are  lighting  all  of  their 
streets  on  this  principle,  except  that  in  the  outlying  residential 
sections  one  globe  is  used  instead  of  a  cluster.  The  best  lighted 
streets  are  still  those  provided  with  incandescent  globes  and  with 
underground  service.  Michigan  Boulevard  in  Chicago  for  a 
mile,  the  length  of  Grant  Park,  where  the  lighting  is  under  the 
control  of  the  South  Park  Commissioners,  is  the  most  beauti- 
fully lighted  thoroughfare  in  America.  Six  globes  on  arms  pro- 
jecting at  right  angles  from  a  gracefully  designed  and  well  pro- 
portioned bronze  standard  are  far  and  away  more  artistic  than 
any  other  standards  thus  far  erected  in  American  cities.  Den- 
ver has  put  its  downtown  lights  on  trolley  poles,  thus  reducing 
the  number  of  standards,  though  not  making  them  so  beautiful 
as  some  other  cities.  Citizens  must  feel  a  sense  of  humiliation 
if  their  business  streets  are  encumbered  with  any  other  poles 
than  those  that  sustain  the  lights  and  the  trolley  wires.  Man- 
hattan and  Washington  dispense  with  the  latter.  New  York's 
chief  streets  are  not  only  well  lighted,  but  its  illuminated  street 
signs  establish  a  valuable  precedent. 

Public  services  are  still  largely  limited  to  functions  connected 
with  the  city  street.  The  passing  of  superstition  removes  the 
barriers  to  the  open  road. 

•  Appendix  2,  Statistics  of  display  lighting. 


Cedar  Falls. 

Seattle's  municipal  power  plant  is  one  mile  below  the  falls. 


First  Avenue,  North  from  Yesler  Way,  Seattle,  Washington. 
Seattle  Municipal  Light  and  Power  Plant. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    CITY'S    WASTES 

Street  Cleaning 

Street  cleaning  is  conditioned  absolutely  upon  street  pav- 
ing. The  immense  improvement  in  the  paving  of  American 
streets  has  led  to  an  extension  of  street-cleaning  methods  origi- 
nally well-nigh  monopolized  by  New  York  City.  In  1909 
about  100,000,000  square  yards  of  highways  were  regularly 
swept  by  hand  in  American  cities.  The  amount  swept  by 
machine  was  rapidly  approaching  these  figures,  while  one-third 
of  that  area  was  flushed.  The  improvement  in  mechanical 
appliances  is  largely  responsible  for  the  greater  cleanliness  of 
streets  to-day.  Horse-drawn  sweepers  and  sprinklers  are  being 
superseded  by  motor  vehicles,  high-pressure  flushing  machines, 
and  the  use  of  oil  instead  of  water.  Machines  sending  such  a 
volume  of  water  across  the  street  as  to  wash  nearly  all  the 
refuse  into  the  gutter  will  necessarily  supplant  the  very  in- 
effective street  sprinkler  that  still  survives  in  many  cities. 

Street  flushing  is  like  a  shower  bath.  It  is  intended  to  follow 
the  cleansing  process. 

On  smooth  pavements  it  is  possible  also  to  use  the  squeegee, 
so  long  employed  in  European  cities  and  familiar  in  private 
housekeeping  in  America.  Where  the  paving  permits  the  use 
of  the  squeegee  —  a  flat  rubber  surface  —  it  is  possible  to  clean 
nearly  twice  as  great  an  area  in  a  given  time  with  half  the 
amount  of  water  used  by  a  flushing  machine.  Municipalities 
are  experimenting  with  suction  vehicles,  operating  after  the 
fashion  of  a  vacuum  cleaner,  to  clean  smooth  pavements  in  dry 
weather.  So  much  dirt  accumulates  in  the  city  street,  however, 
that  it  cannot  really  be  kept  clean  unless  there  is  work  done  by 
hand  during  the  day  and  ample  flushing  at  night.  Receptacles 
for  street  rubbish  are  quite  general.     Denver  has  been  a  leader 

73 


74 


AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


in  securing  the  cooperation  of  its  citizens.  It  now  uses  recep- 
tacles painted  with  aluminum  paint,  containing  bags.  The  re- 
ceptacles can  only  be  unlocked  by  the  street  cleaner,  who  takes 
out  the  full  bag,  substituting  an  empty  one,  thus  keeping  the 
street  free  from  refuse. 

The  term  municipal  housekeeping  is  becoming  clear. 

The  superiority  of  the  motor  vehicle  to  a  horse  is  shown  in 
Cleveland,  where  an  electric  street  flusher  cleans  a  mile  of  street 
for  seventy-five  cents  as  compared  with  $4.50  for  a  horse-drawn 
wagon.  Many  cities  depend  now  upon  the  flushing  done  by 
the  street  railway  companies.  Sprinkling  cars  are  used  exten- 
sively in  the  industrial  towns  about  Boston.  East  St.  Louis 
has  been  bribed  by  the  Suburban  Railway  Company  to  per- 
mit it  to  sprinkle  the  streets  in  lieu  of  putting  its  wires  under- 
ground. 

One  does  not  try  to  put  out  a  conflagration  with  a  watering  can. 

The  use  of  oil  instead  of  water  on  macadam  and  similar 
paving  has  become  quite  general  in  New  England  and  Cali- 
fornia and  is  found  at  least  experimentally  all  across  the  coun- 
try. Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island,  has  shown  that  the  cost  of  oil- 
ing streets  is  $1.25  a  square  yard  as  compared  with  $1.40  which 
was  paid  for  watering  them.  This  economy  has  been  effected 
in  the  face  of  the  expense  of  oil  by  substituting  a  motor  truck 
for  nineteen  watering  carts,  nineteen  pairs  of  horses  and  nineteen 
drivers. 

"Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest "  was  not  spoken  of  the 
sanitary  street. 

New  York  before  Scrubbing 

In  the  old  Tammany  days  many  of  the  streets  in  New  York 
were  never  cleaned,  and  it  was  held  that  some  of  them  could 
not  be  cleaned.  The  practice  was  common  in  many  of  the 
streets  of  the  East  Side  to  allow  wagons  to  be  stored.  It  was 
said  that  there  being  no  alleys  and  the  district  being  compactly 
built,  there  was  no  other  place  to  put  the  wagons.  During  the 
winter  the  snow  would  accumulate  about  these  places ;  along 
the  line  of  the  street  railways  it  would  be  swept  in  heaps  under 
and  over  the  wagons,  remaining  so  indefinitely.  It  was  con- 
tended that  some  of  the  asphalt  streets  were  covered  with  a 


THE   CITY'S   WASTES  75 

thick,  sticky  substance  which  could  not  be  removed.  It  was 
claimed  that  the  chief  constituent  of  this  coating  was  axle 
grease,  and  that  there  were  no  known  methods,  at  least  within 
the  reach  of  the  annual  appropriation,  by  which  the  paving  of 
these  streets  could  again  be  made  visible. 

A  boy  with  dirty  hands  could  not  have  been  more  fertile  in 
excuses  than  Tammany  was. 

It  was  popularly  surmised,  though  not  fully  confirmed  until 
the  advent  of  a  reform  administration,  that  the  mismanagement 
of  New  York's  streets  was  due  to  Tammany's  necessity  of  pro- 
viding places  for  a  large  number  of  retainers.  It  was  generally 
supposed,  however,  that  this  was  the  unavoidable  condition  of 
affairs  in  American  cities,  and  the  mass  of  the  population  ex- 
pressed very  little  hope  of  change,  as  well  as  very  little  desire 
for  it.  Under  the  administration  of  Mayor  Strong,  however, 
there  was  chosen  as  head  of  the  street-cleaning  department  a 
man  with  large  experience  as  a  military  officer  of  the  United 
States,  with  an  extended  knowledge  of  sanitary  questions  and 
great  ability  as  an  executive.  In  spite  of  his  being  known  to 
possess  these  unusual  quaUfications,  Colonel  Waring  astonished 
the  people  of  New  York  and  of  the  country  by  the  revolution 
he  wrought  in  the  street-cleaning  methods  of  the  metropolis. 

Americans  for  the  first  time  saw  streets  cleaned  without  going 
abroad. 

New  York  after  Scrubbing 

Colonel  Waring  found  the  Tammany  employees  despised  by 
the  public,  having  little  respect  for  themselves  and  none  for  their 
work.  Their  positions  were  uncertain,  as  it  was  constantly 
necessary  to  make  places  for  new  men  who  needed  reward. 
These  men,  without  uniforms,  without  organization,  one  might 
almost  say  without  obligation,  succeeded  in  1888,  in  cleaning 
$;^  of  the  342  miles  of  paved  streets  in  the  city  district.  Under 
Colonel  Waring  433  miles  of  streets  were  cleaned  from  once  to 
five  times  a  day  by  an  army  of  2500  men,  organized  after  mili- 
tary methods,  taking  as  much  interest  in  their  work  and  as 
greatly  respected  by  the  public  for  it  as  are  the  members  of  the 
fire  department. 

Colonel  Waring  and  Colonel  Goethals  have  shown  the 
superiority  of  military  to  business  methods. 


76  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

One  of  Colonel  Waring's  simplest  devices  to  secure  efl&ciency 
was  happily  spectacular  enough  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
country.  He  put  his  men  into  white  uniforms.  Although  he 
kept  in  service  most  of  the  men  whom  he  found  left  there  by 
Tammany,  he  so  altered  their  appearance  that  the  bent  and 
ragged  crossing  sweeper  of  the  old  days  would  not  be  recognized 
in  the  man  in  neat  white  duck  suit,  with  military  carriage. 
These  uniforms  had  the  effect  of  giving  the  men  self-respect,  of 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  public  and  of  making  inspection 
easy. 

These  were  the  "white  wings"  that  never  grew  weary. 

Not  the  least  important  feature  of  this  new  system  was 
the  organization  into  districts,  with  inspectors  and  super- 
visors, under  military  discipline.  There  was  an  important 
democratic  modification.  A  conference  was  held  once  a 
month  between  Colonel  Waring's  personal  staff  and  the  men, 
represented  by  one  delegate  from  each  section  and  one  from 
each  stable. 

Colonel  Waring  organized  Junior  Leagues  of  school  children 
to  assist  in  keeping  the  city  clean.  These  have  been  revived  by 
Commissioner  Fetherston,  so  that  in  19 14  there  were  three 
hundred  Leagues  with  a  membership  of  300,000  children  in  the 
grades  as  well  as  the  high  schools.  The  children  design  their 
own  posters  to  assist  in  the  work  of  impressing  the  citizens  with 
the  possibility  of  a  clean  city. 

Cleveland  organizes  the  school  children  under  junior  street 
commissioners. 

Waste  Collection 

The  handling  of  a  city's  wastes  involves  two  chief  functions : 
collection  and  disposal.  Shall  the  collection  be  by  contract  or 
day  labor?  The  disposition  by  contract  almost  necessarily 
leads  to  the  performance  of  the  most  remunerative  service  well 
and  the  neglect  of  the  others. 

There  is  an  ascending  scale  of  scientific  service  in  waste  col- 
lection. St.  Louis,  Newark,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh  and 
Cincinnati  allow  contractors  to  make  collections  and  operate  the 
disposal  works.  The  obligations  of  both  city  and  householder 
are  thus  reduced  to  a  minimum,  while  their  sense  of  public  re- 
sponsibility coincidently  deteriorates. 


THE  CITY'S  WASTES  77 

Housekeeping  is  being  municipalized,  but  housekeepers  are  not 
yet  socialized. 

The  collection  of  waste  involves  also  the  question  of  its  sepa- 
ration by  householders  and  industrial  organizations,  so  that 
there  may  be  separate  disposition.  In  some  cities  the  authori- 
ties remove  the  garbage,  but  require  the  householder  to  dispose 
of  his  ashes  and  rubbish. 

Springfield,  Massachusetts,  and  Syracuse  are  examples  of 
cities  where  the  city  collectors  are  expected  to  go  into  the  base- 
ments for  the  refuse  cans  and  return  them  when  emptied.  In 
Milwaukee  the  collections  are  made  at  night.  If  the  cans  are 
permitted  to  appear  on  the  street  to  await  collection,  it  is  im- 
perative that  they  be  uniform  and  durable  both  for  aesthetic  and 
sanitary  reasons.  The  householder,  however,  cannot  be  blamed 
for  neglect  if  the  service  is  not  prompt.  Neither  can  the  mu- 
nicipal authorities  do  their  work  properly  without  the  coopera- 
tion of  intelligent  and  public-spirited  householders. 

Citizens,  as  well  as  officials,  are  pubHc  servants. 

The  only  entirely  satisfactory  method  is  to  have  all  the 
services  performed  by  the  employees  of  the  municipaUty,  from 
gathering  the  refuse  out  of  the  houses  themselves  to  the  final 
disposition  by  the  most  scientific  methods.  The  placing  of 
receptacles  on  the  street  or  in  alleys  by  the  householder  puts  too 
much  dependence  upon  his  variable  methods  and  ignorance. 

Philadelphia  is  badly  handicapped  with  the  contract  method 
of  street  cleaning,  but  a  vigorous  publicity  campaign  is  being 
carried  on  by  the  Bureau  of  Highways  and  Street  Cleaning. 
Civic  and  business  men's  associations  have  been  appealed  to 
for  cooperation.  Nearly  1500  receptacles  for  waste  paper  were 
placed  in  appropriate  locations  throughout  the  city  in  1913. 
Literature  has  been  circulated  to  persuade  people  to  use  the 
public  receptacles  and  to  provide  themselves  with  better  ones 
for  household  service.  A  woman  inspector  has  been  appointed 
to  cooperate  with  the  women's  clubs.  She  gave  two  hundred 
lectures  in  1913,  influencing  women  and  children  through  club, 
church,  settlement  and  school  meetings.  Five  thousand  buttons 
have  been  distributed  to  children  as  symbols  of  their  civic  re- 
sponsibility. The  week  of  April  28-May  3  was  set  aside  as 
clean-up  week.  The  daily  papers  were  used,  pamphlets  were 
distributed,  and  placards  posted  in  store  windows  and  public 


78  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

conveyances.  Thirty-four  thousand  cubic  yards  of  rubbish 
were  collected  that  week,  equivalent  in  size  to  a  solid  block  of 
dwellings. 

Annual  clean-up  days  are  unnecessary  in  well-regulated  cities. 

Whether  removed  by  contract  or  day  labor,  there  are  four 
classes  of  waste :  garbage,  ashes,  rubbish  and  street  sweepings. 
Few  cities  gather  and  dispose  of  all  of  these  wastes  scientifically. 
Many  cities  organize  one  or  other  of  these  services  well.     New 
York,  Washington,  Pittsburgh  and  Boston  provide   for   three 
separations  of  household  waste  —  garbage,  ashes  and   rubbish 
—  and  recover  some  value  from  each  class  of  refuse  treated 
separately.     The  collections  are  made  by  the  municipality,  but 
the  disposal  is  done  by  contract.     Cleveland  and  Columbus 
perform  all  the  services,  collecting  the  garbage  and  disposing  of  it 
by  reduction,  while  the  ashes  and  rubbish  are  used  for  filHng. 
New  York  leads  at  present  in  the  frequency  of  collection  of 
garbage  and  ashes,  the  aim  being  to  make  a  daily  collection 
except  in   the  remoter  districts.      Chicago,   Washington  and 
other  cities  attempt  to  maintain  this  maximum  service  in  the 
business  area  and  it  shades  off  to  a  weekly  collection  determined 
by  the  distance  from  the  center  and  the  season  of  the  year.     It 
is  not  necessary  that  these  methods  should  be  uniform,  but  it  is 
now  possible  with  a  reasonable  expense  for  them  to  be  scientific. 
Chicago  is  demonstrating  the  value  of  motor  trucks,  already 
using  them  in  collecting  refuse  from  central  receiving  stations 
and  experimenting  in  the  work  of  household  collection.     It  is 
estimated  that  $15,000  a  year  could  be  saved  by  this  method  of 
hauUng. 

Some  day  the  city  wastes  may  pay  for  themselves. 

Waste  Disposal 

Street  sweepings  and  garbage  contain  valuable  organic  matter 
which,  if  possible,  should  be  returned  to  the  land.  A  scientific 
and  profitable  method  is  to  plow  them  into  the  ground  and 
permit  septic  processes  to  make  rich  loam.  This  requires  space 
and  time.  Ashes  and  other  street  rubbish  may  be  dumped  on 
land  or  in  water,  but  there  are  sanitary  objections  to  dumping 
refuse  in  w^ater.  Garbage  ought  never  to  be  dumped  on  land 
for  the  same  reason.     Rubbish  may  be  picked  over  and  the 


THE  CITY'S  WASTES  79 

valuable  materials  used  either  for  commercial  or  combustible 
purposes.  This  involves,  however,  a  form  of  employment 
which  is  deleterious  to  the  health  of  the  workers.  The  feeding 
of  garbage  to  swine  is  a  popular  method  in  small  communities. 
For  safety  it  requires  close  supervision  and  the  very  use  of  this 
method  testifies  to  the  undeveloped  methods  of  the  city  govern- 
ment. The  most  extended  scientific  process  for  the  disposal  of 
garbage  in  the  United  States  is  reduction.  Grease  and  fertilizer 
stock  are  thus  secured.  Cleveland  has  the  largest  municipal 
reduction  plant  in  the  United  States.  Fourteen  cars  are  used 
to  transport  its  garbage  to  the  reduction  plant.  This  plant 
has  to  be  increased  in  size  constantly  to  keep  pace  with  the 
growth  of  the  city,  but  the  cost  of  disposal  per  ton  is  steadily 
decreasing. 

The  present  scientific  knowledge  does  not  make  a  reduction 
plant  a  pleasant  neighbor. 

Another  popular  and  successful  method  is  incineration.     In 

America,  with  our  wasteful  domestic  methods,  the  garbage  is  so 

moist  that  it  has  to  be  mixed  with  ashes  or  other  combustible 

waste    to    make    incineration    profitable.     When    scientifically 

done,  there  is  a  clinker  or  slag  from  the  burning  of  refuse  that 

makes  a  good  filler  for  roads  and  other  construction  work.     The 

heat  developed  in  this  process  must  be  transformed  into  steam 

or  electrical  power  or  light  in  order  to  justify  the  expense. 

This  method  has  the  advantage  over  reduction  of  permitting 

location  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  thus  lowering  the  cost  of  cartage. 

It  is  not  reprehensible  to  make  light  of  a  city's  waste. 

Many  cities  have  garbage  crematories  that  serve  adequately 

to  dispose  of  the  garbage,  but  give  no  return  in  heat,  Ught  or 

power.     This  wasteful  method  is  being  increasingly  avoided, 

although  in  no  instance  is  the  plant  combined  with  other  pubUc 

utilities  so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum  service  through  economical 

administration.     The  incinerator  in  Milwaukee  furnishes  the 

light  for  McKinley  Park  and   flushes   the  sewer  tunnel.     In 

summer  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  add  fuel  in  the  form  of 

cheap  coke.     This  is  only  necessary  when  the  proportion  of 

garbage  exceeds  80  per  cent  of  the  total  refuse  delivered.     Up 

to  this  point  the  ashes  and  rubbish  furnish  sufficient  fuel  to 

evaporate  the  moisture  from  the  garbage  and  still  furnish  light 

and  power. 


8o  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Extravagant  housekeeping  does  not  make  economical  munic- 
ipal housekeeping. 

Mmneapolis  began  in  190S  to  light  and  heat  Hopewell  Hos- 
pital and  the  workhouse  buildings  by  its  refuse.  By  191 2  the 
plant  was  running  successfully  enough  to  inaugurate  the  light- 
ing of  the  streets.  In  two  years'  time  the  pubhc  lighting  from 
this  plant  has  been  extended  over  thirty-one  miles  of  streets. 
Arc  Hghts  furnished  for  $60  have  compelled  the  private  company 
to  cut  its  rate  from  $70  to  $62.50.  The  expense  of  running  the 
crematory  has  been  about  $29,000.  Set  off  against  this  is  a 
revenue  of  $12,000,  leaving  a  net  expense  of  $17,000  and  the 
immense  gain  to  the  citizens  that  has  come  from  lowering  the 
cost  of  private  lighting.^ 

A  small  pubhc  plant  may  grow  a  "big  stick." 

Baltimore  to  Seattle 

Baltimore's  experiment  in  refuse  disposal  furnishes  an  illu- 
minating instance  of  mere  business  efhciency.  A  private  com- 
pany was  given  a  contract  in  1902  for  the  collection  and  dis- 
position of  ashes  and  garbage,  as  well  as  cleaning  the  markets. 
A  reduction  plant  was  erected  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city. 
The  contractors  were  paid  $147,000  a  year.  This  price  was 
raised  year  by  year  until  in  1907  it  amounted  to  nearly  $205,000. 
On  January  i,  1908,  the  city  acquired  the  company's  outfit,  in- 
cluding stables,  harness,  horses,  carts,  wharves,  shops  and 
machinery,  to  be  operated  by  the  street-cleaning  department. 
The  contract  for  the  disposal  of  the  refuse  was  made  for  ten 
years  with  a  private  company.  Ashes  and  rubbish  are  now 
collected  by  the  city  drivers  and  hauled  or  towed  on  scows  to 
lowlands  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  Garbage  and  market 
refuse  are  collected  and  sent  on  scows  to  a  reduction  plant,  for 
the  disposition  of  which  the  contractors  receive  $66,500  a  year. 

Baltimore  disposes  of  its  sewage  by  economical  municipal 
methods,  of  its  refuse  by  profit-making  business  methods. 

>  The  municipalities  are  much  more  inclined  to  operate  crematories  than  reduc- 
tion plants.  Forty-three  of  the  forty-eight  cities  reporting  incineration  plants 
in  1909  owned  them.  Seventy-nine  cities  reported  reduction  plants,  of  which  only 
two  were  municipally  owned.  The  Chicago  Waste  Commission,  reporting  on  twenty- 
five  of  the  reduction  plants  of  the  country,  indicated  a  market  value  for  their 
product  of  3  J  million  dollars. 


THE  CITY'S   WASTES  01 

Seattle  has  led  the  way  in  proving  the  value  of  the  familiar 
German  method  of  burying  refuse  for  the  redemption  and  fer- 
tilization of  land.  Ur.  James  E.  Crichton,  Commissioner  of 
Health,  began  this  disposition  of  Seattle's  daily  production  of 
four  hundred  tons  of  refuse.  The  city's  great  area  had  com- 
pelled it  to  erect  incinerators  in  different  sections  to  save  cartage. 
Dr.  Crichton  chose  low-lying  land  upon  which  the  refuse  was 
dumped  to  a  depth  of  about  three  feet.  Over  this  was  spread 
an  antiseptic  spray  to  prevent  the  breeding  of  flies  and  mos- 
quitoes. The  refuse  was  then  covered  with  sand  or  clinker  and 
ashes,  permitting  aeration.  The  combined  action  of  the  bacteria 
and  oxygen  disintegrated  the  garbage.  The  judicious  scattering 
of  boxes,  cans,  bottles,  straw  and  paper  helped  to  provide  space 
for  the  circulation  of  air.  What  could  not  have  occurred  in  a 
mass  of  compact  garbage  was  thus  expedited,  and  at  the  end  of 
three  months  even  tin  cans  had  disintegrated.  Grass  seed  was 
then  sowed  on  this  land  and  the  desert  began  to  blossom. 

The  small  towns  of  Aberdeen  and  Hoquiam,  Washington, 
have  followed  the  method  of  Seattle. 

The  Pacific  cities  with  characteristic  audacity  overlook  the 
timid  progress  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  and  choose  their  precedents 
from  the  superior  methods  of  Europe. 

New  York  Waste  Disposal 

New  York's  wastes  for  many  years  were  carted  to  the  water 
front,  where  these  objectionable  materials  were  placed  upon 
barges  and  scattered  by  hand  labor  in  the  waters  of  the  bay  or 
on  lowlands,  with  very  noisome  results  in  either  case.  Italian 
laborers  "trimmed"  the  barges  for  perquisites,  the  padrones 
"trimmed"  the  laborers  and  Tammany  "  trimmed  "  the  city. 
In  1888  the  government  established  the  office  of  Supervisor  of 
the  Harbor  of  New  York,  putting  in  charge  an  officer  of  the 
navy  with  a  view  to  restricting  the  deposit  of  matter  in  the 
harbor. 

The  Federal  Government  spends  $30,000  a  year  redigging  the 
post  holes  New  York  has  filled  up. 

New  York  is  continuing  its  experiments  in  waste  disposal. 
In  the  three  chief  boroughs  the  Commissioner  of  Street  Clean- 
ing, appointed  by  the  Mayor,  controls  not  only  the  cleaning  of 


82  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

the  streets,  but  the  removal  and  disposition  of  ashes,  garbage, 
rubbish,  street  sweepings,  snow  and  ice.  Only  the  disposal  of 
dead  animals  and  oflfal  is  left  to  the  Department  of  Health. 
New  York  uses  extensively  hand  sweeping  for  its  streets,  sup- 
plemented by  street  sweepers,  flushing  and  squeegee  machines. 
The  heart  of  the  city  is  cleaned  at  night.  The  department  em- 
ploys about  3000  men  on  the  streets.  In  addition  to  the  im- 
perative work  of  street  cleaning,  the  department  estimates 
that  it  is  burdened  by  the  necessity  of  paying  $270,000  annually 
for  the  removal  of  street  litter  unnecessarily  imposed  upon  it 
by  careless  citizens  and  by  the  failure  of  the  city  to  provide 
receptacles. 

The  labors  of  city  fathers  are  increased  by  dirty  children. 

The  department  uses  a  metal  vehicle  with  a  capacity  of  i^ 
cubic  yards  for  the  collection  of  garbage  and  a  wooden  wagon 
holding  7^  cubic  yards  of  rubbish.  Eighteen  hundred  drivers 
are  needed  for  the  service,  each  driver  collecting  about  five 
tons  a  day.  The  wastes  are  hauled  to  dumps.  Garbage  is 
towed  to  Barren  Island  in  Jamaica  Bay,  where  it  is  reduced  to 
grease  and  fertilizer.  About  half  of  the  ashes  and  rubbish  col- 
lected in  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  is  used  in  filling  at  Riker's 
Island,  where  sixty-five  acres  have  been  added  by  this  process. 
The  other  half  is  used  for  filling  by  the  boroughs.  In  Brooklyn 
the  wastes  are  burned.  A  more  economical  contract  was  made 
in  July,  1913,  giving  a  contractor  an  arrangement  whereby  the 
city  will  receive  nearly  $500,000  in  five  years  for  garbage  de- 
livered at  the  water  front  of  the  boroughs  of  Manhattan,  Brook- 
lyn and  the  Bronx. 

As  early  as  1895  Colonel  Waring  had  compelled  the  separa- 
tion of  garbage,  wastes  and  rubbish.  He  built  an  incinerator 
in  East  Eighteenth  Street  that  seems  to  have  been  operated  so 
that  it  ran  the  machinery  of  the  plant  and  nothing  else.  Com- 
missioner Woodbury  built  another  under  the  Williamsburg 
Bridge.  Like  the  former  plant,  it  had  a  conveyor  for  sorting 
the  material  and  boilers  for  producing  steam.  It  succeeded  in 
lighting  part  of  the  bridge,  but  when  the  attempt  was  made  to 
light  the  whole  bridge,  it  burned  itself  out  because  the  plant  was 
too  small.  The  use  of  the  incinerator  to  dispose  of  rubbish  was 
continued,  but  a  private  company  offered  to  light  the  bridge 
more  cheaply  than  it  could  be  done  by  a  small  plant.     Com- 


THE   CITY'S   WASTES  83 

missioner  Woodbury  did  not  surrender  his  belief  that  rubbish 
can  compete  with  coal,  but  found  it  necessary  to  have  so  large 
a  plant  that  the  cost  of  hauling  the  rubbish  became  prohibitive. 

With  a  municipal  transportation  system  New  York  could 
make  its  wastes  economies. 

A  more  successful  use  of  the  city's  wastes  is  in  process  in  the 
Borough  of  Richmond.  For  several  years  garbage  has  been 
burned  —  more  precisely,  has  been  burning  itself  —  and  fur- 
nishing enough  heat  to  run  the  machinery  of  the  plant  and  light 
it.  The  clinker  that  drops  from  the  furnaces  has  been  used  as  a 
foundation  for  concrete  sidewalks.  A  later  improvement  mixes 
it  with  cement,  and  superior  bricks  are  made.  A  large  revenue 
might  be  secured  in  this  way  but  for  the  legal  limitations  pre- 
venting the  Borough  from  going  into  the  market  with  its  prod- 
ucts. This  same  limitation  imposes  additional  burdens  on 
the  plant  because  the  Borough  cannot  sell  the  scrap  iron  that 
is  extracted  from  the  refuse  by  a  magnetic  separator.  Mean- 
while, the  Borough  is  using  its  products  in  its  own  buildings 
and  driveways. 

Municipal  mismanagement  is  not  inspiring,  but  it  is  some- 
times inspired. 

Snow  Removal 

New  York's  narrow,  congested  downtown  streets  make  of  a 
snowstorm  sometimes  a  million  dollar  luxury.  New  York  has 
recently  improved  its  methods  of  disposing  of  snow  with  economy. 
New  York  is  showing  how  a  city  which  is  adequately  equipped 
with  storm  water  drains  may  use  them  for  the  disposal  of  snow. 
In  1914  John  T.  Fetherston,  Commissioner  of  Street  Cleaning, 
removed  five  million  yards  of  snow  in  one  month.  The  pre- 
vious season  record  was  two  and  one  half  million.  It  has  been 
proved  by  tests  that  under  proper  supervision,  a  powerful  stream 
of  water  from  a  hose  will  wash  snow  into  the  storm  sewers  with- 
out causing  the  water  to  back  up  into  cellars.  The  work  is 
achieved  by  organizing  the  forces  so  as  to  dispose  of  the  snow 
as  it  falls.  The  method  is  to  double  the  sweeping  and  street- 
cleaning  force  of  the  department,  giving  each  sweeper  a  helper 
to  clean  crosswalks,  to  open  gutters  and  to  keep  the  space 
around  sewer  basins  and  fire  hydrants  clear.  Snow  can  be  re- 
moved in  this  way  at  about  one-fifth  the  cost  necessary  to  cart 


84  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

it  to  the  river  front.  It  is  estimated  that  for  the  570  miles  oi 
street  now  cared  for  a  force  of  20,000  to  40,000  men  can  remove 
an  eight-inch  snowfall  in  eight  hours. 

The  surplus  labor  of  the  city  makes  it  easier  to  remove  snow 
as  it  falls  than  it  is  for  the  farmer  to  make  hay  while  the  sun 
shines. 

The  removal  of  snow  in  Boston  is  divided  into  urban  and 
suburban  districts.  The  PubUc  Works  employees  plow  out 
the  gutters,  clean  the  crosswalks,  and  if  the  snow  is  deep  enough, 
level  off  the  street  with  a  breaker  drawn  by  six  horses.  In  the 
business  area  about  one  hundred  miles  of  streets  are  cleared 
with  considerable  difficulty.  The  streets  are  so  narrow  that 
traffic  is  suspended  until  the  snow  is  removed.  Boston's  abun- 
dant water  front  simplifies  the  problem  and  gives  it  direction. 
An  ordinary  storm  —  up  to  six  or  eight  inches  —  is  handled  by 
the  accustomed  force  and  equipment  —  1000  men  and  300  carts. 
The  city  is  divided  into  six  snow  districts,  and  contracts  are 
awarded  by  the  cubic  yard  for  the  removal  of  snow.  The  street 
railway  company  assists  in  disposing  of  snow  by  running  gondola 
cars  at  night  to  the  bridges,  where  the  snow  is  unloaded  into 
the  water.  This  is  the  most  efficient  and  economical  method 
yet  used.  To  a  Umited  extent,  snow  is  dumped  into  the  larger 
sewers. 

Snow,  like  other  urban  luxuries,  is  a  joy  chiefly  to  the  im- 
mature and  the  unemployed. 

Smoke  Abatement 

Innumerable  fiascos  have  been  followed  by  notable  progress 
in  smoke  abatement  in  the  last  decade.  It  is  impossible  to 
estimate  the  exact  losses  from  the  waste  of  fuel  or  the  destruc- 
tion of  values  due  to  soot.  The  calculations  that  are  made 
conservatively,  however,  completely  dispose  of  the  ancient 
superstition  that  smoke  is  excusable  as  an  evidence  of  prosperity. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  annual  per  capita  loss  from  smoke 
in  Chicago  is  $8,  in  Cleveland  $12  ($44  per  family),  in  Pitts- 
burgh $20.  Whether  the  actual  loss  is,  however,  half  as  large 
or  twice  as  large,  it  is  inexcusable,  since  scientific  devices  make 
smoke  abatement  entirely  feasible. 

Convincing  experiments  have  been  made  by  reliable  scientists 


THE   CITY'S   WASTES  85 

in  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  and  at  the  Universities  of 
Illinois  and  Pittsburgh. ^ 

Mr.  S.  B.  Flagg  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines  says  that  smoke  pre- 
vention does  not  necessarily  mean  the  use  of  a  smoke  consumer. 
Smoke  prevention  involves  the  removal  of  cool  surfaces,  such 
as  the  water-cooled  surfaces  of  a  boiler,  further  from  the  fuel 
bed,  or  changing  the  method  of  feeding  the  fuel  into  the  furnace, 
or  a  better  mixture  of  the  combustible  gases  with  incoming  air. 
A  catalogue  of  the  losses  due  to  needless  smoke  is  an  impressive 
indictment  of  this  form  of  waste.  There  is  the  periodical 
decoration  of  the  exterior  and  interior  of  buildings,  the  constant 
cleaning  of  interior  furnishings,  depreciation  due  to  the  in- 
creased wear,  window  cleaning,  injuries  to  goods  in  stores  and 
factories,  increased  cost  for  artificial  illumination  and  the  in- 
ferior output  due  to  lack  of  light,  laundry  and  cleaning  bills, 
the  loss  on  books  and  works  of  art,  the  burdens  laid  upon 
hospitals  and  the  effect  on  the  health  of  people,  animals  and 
plants. 

The  loss  from  carbon  going  up  is  estimated  to  be  only  one- 
tenth  the  loss  from  carbon  coming  down. 

The  movement  for  smoke  abatement  has  now  extended  to 
cities  of  all  classes.  A  dozen  of  the  smaller  cities  already  have 
an  ordinance  or  a  smoke  inspection  officer.  Of  the  cities  from 
50,000  to  ?oo,ooo  population,  more  than  one-fourth  make  some 
effort  to  stop  this  nuisance.  Most  of  the  cities  of  over  200,000 
population  have  grappled  with  the  problem.  As  is  common  in 
the  case  of  a  new  reform,  many  of  the  ordinances  are  Hmited  by 
exceptions  designed  to  protect  property  at  the  expense  of  the 
people.  Denver,  Detroit  and  St.  Louis  are  very  gentle  with 
offenders.  Buffalo  has  an  ordinance  so  drastic  that  it  promises 
to  follow  the  fate  of  most  American  legislation  that  is  not  en- 
forced. Philadelphia,  Providence,  Rochester  and  Louisville 
stultify  themselves  by  exempting  locomotives. 

A  physician  who  smokes  seldom  counsels  against  smoking. 

The  most  conspicuous  success  is  being  made  by  the  smoke 
inspection  department  of  Chicago  with  the  assistance  of  a  pubUc- 

'  The  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and  School  of  Specific  Industries 
of  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  is  issuing  a  series  of  brochures  reporting  the  results 
of  its  smoke  investigations.  The  first  nine  numbers  cover  773  pages.  The  subject 
is  being  studied  exhaustively ;  one  of  the  bulletins  is  a  bibliography  of  160  pages. 


86  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

spirited  committee  of  citizens  who  are  spending  a  considerable 
sum  in  educating  the  pubhc  and  officials.  While  Chicago  was 
estimated  to  be  losing  $57,000,000  through  smoke  in  the  three 
years  before  191 1,  it  was  spending  $143,000  for  smoke  abate- 
ment. Comparatively  modest  results  would  have  justified  this 
expenditure,  yet  it  is  believed  that  the  smoke  was  reduced  one- 
third  in  Chicago  in  that  time.  Excluding  private  houses,  it  is 
claimed  that  there  are  17,000  smokestacks  in  Chicago  emitting 
unnecessary  smoke.  To  supervise  these  there  were  employed  in 
1 9 10  fourteen  assistants  and  nine  deputies.  Chicago  provides 
a  policeman  for  every  440  persons,  but  the  most  efficient  smoke 
department  in  the  country  still  provides  only  one  inspector  for 
750  smokestacks. 

It  is  not  hkely  that  there  are  so  many  offenders  among  the 
cosmopolitan  citizens  of  Chicago  as  among  the  smokestacks. 

It  is  estimated  that  43  per  cent  of  the  smoke  comes  from 
locomotives,  about  the  same  amount  from  miscellaneous  power 
plants  and  special  furnaces,  6  per  cent  from  the  business  district, 
4  per  cent  from  boats,  and  less  than  5  per  cent  from  domestic 
buildings.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  electrification  of  rail- 
ways and  the  construction  of  central  power  and  heating  plants 
would  nearly  clear  the  atmosphere,  because  the  most  expensive 
mechanical  devices  can  be  profitably  employed  by  these  enter- 
prises. 

The  mechanical  difficulties  are  solved :  only  intelligence  and 
public  spirit  are  needed  to  clear  the  skies.  The  city's  wastes 
prove  to  be  chiefly  the  citizen's  waste. 


CHAPTER  VI 

WATER  AND  SEWERAGE 

The  Conservation  of  Water 

The  waste  of  water  in  American  cities  is  one  reason  for  the 
toleration  of  an  inferior  water  supply.  Cities  cannot  afford  to 
filter  water  for  extravagant  use.  One  hundred  gallons  per  capita 
per  day  is  an  abundant  supply  for  all  domestic  and  commercial 
uses  when  properly  conserved.  Pittsburgh,  Philadelphia  and 
Chicago  furnish  over  200  gallons  per  capita  per  day,  Buffalo  and 
Salt  Lake  City  over  300.  Some  of  this  water  may  be  wasted 
on  account  of  faulty  construction  of  the  plant  or  bad  adminis- 
tration, but  much  of  it  is  due  to  lack  of  meters.  The  extrava- 
gance of  Buffalo,  for  example,  is  easily  traced  to  the  fact  that 
only  2  per  cent  of  the  water  is  reported  to  be  metered.  In 
Milwaukee,  where  the  consumption  is  said  to  be  81  gallons,  80 
per  cent  of  the  service  is  metered. ^  The  consumption  in  Boston 
has  been  reduced  in  five  years  from  165  to  107  gallons  by  con- 
servation methods.  With  two-thirds  of  the  city  metered, 
Meadville,  Pennsylvania,  uses  50  per  cent  less  water  than  under 
the  old  system. 

The  expense  of  water  for  fire  protection,  streets  and  lawns 
may  often  be  met  by  a  dual  system,  filtering  and  metering  only 
the  domestic  supply. 

One  of  the  obvious  ways  to  reduce  the  expense  of  water  would 
be  to  charge  up  all  that  is  used  by  public  departments  so  that 
there  would  be  a  check  on  waste.  In  191 2  Cleveland  enjoyed 
a  net  profit  of  over  half  a  million  from  its  waterworks,  although 
it  furnished   water   free   to   the   fire   department,   public   and 

>  In  many  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  cities  where  the  consumption  does 
not  rise  above  70  gallons,  most  of  the  service  is  metered,  in  Ware,  Wellesley  and 
Reading  reaching  100  per  cent.  New  Bedford,  Cambridge  and  Haverhill  by  con- 
trast have  a  consumption  running  up  toward  100  gallons,  while  less  than  20  per  cent 
of  the  service  is  metered. 

87 


88  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

parochial  schools,  hospitals,  orphanages,  infirmary,  cemeteries, 
parks,  playgrounds,  and  for  all  public  work  in  and  under  the 
streets.  In  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  one-fourth  of  the  water  used 
is  not  charged  up  on  the  books,  and  yet  the  plant  is  successfully 
operated  from  the  engineer's  point  of  view.  It  was  proposed 
by  the  Council  Water  Works  Committee  of  MinneapoUs  that 
all  city  departments  should  pay  for  water  consumed  in  1915. 
The  annual  revenue  was  half  a  million  dollars,  the  net  profit 
$227,119,  and  more  than  that  amount  was  given  away. 

Hudson,  New  York,  manages  its  water  supply  so  that  all 
water  is  furnished  free,  the  costs  being  added  to  the  general  tax 
rate. 

Los  Angeles  Water  Supply 

The  task  of  providing  water  for  a  city  that  trebles  in  popu- 
lation in  a  decade  is  certainly  not  a  light  one.  When  the  city 
is  located  in  a  semi-arid  region  the  difficulty  is  not  lessened. 
Los  Angeles  having  enjoyed  the  second  largest  increase  in  popu- 
lation in  the  United  States  between  1900  and  1910  has  fearlessly 
penetrated  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  to  meet  its  need  for 
water.  The  source  of  this  supply  is  250  miles  north  of  the  city. 
The  water  is  brought  by  gravity  through  steel  and  concrete 
pipes  and  conduits,  tunneling  through  the  mountains  for  five 
miles  and  crossing  the  Mojave  Desert  for  150  miles.  In  addition 
to  providing  the  city  with  pure  water,  the  enterprise  will  reclaim 
more  than  200  square  miles  of  land  near  the  city  and  develop 
120,000  horse  power  of  electrical  energy. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  been  a  long  time  coming  into  his  own. 

The  best  business  methods  were  employed  in  securing  the 
necessary  land  for  the  project,  the  options  being  acquired  before 
it  was  known  that  the  city  was  the  buyer.  At  a  cost  of  less 
than  $16  an  acre  100,000  acres  were  purchased.  Except  in  the 
first  experimental  stage,  the  whole  gigantic  project  has  been 
carried  on  by  day  labor  under  the  direction  of  the  city's  engineers. 
It  was  estimated  that  the  cost  of  construction  would  be 
$23,000,000,  and  the  work  has  been  done  within  the  estimate. 
By  a  wise  provision  labor  was  rewarded  by  bonus  payments 
amounting  to  30  per  cent  more  than  the  regular  day  wage. 
Thus  the  work  was  made  not  only  more  efficient  and  more  ex- 
peditious, but  10  per  cent  cheaper  and  the  profits  on  the  enter- 


WATER  AND   SEWERAGE  89 

prise  began  to  come  in  earlier.  One  of  the  incentives  to  exclu- 
sive municipal  operation  came  through  an  experience  with 
cement  companies.  The  necessary  ingredients  existed  within 
range  of  the  aqueduct,  and  the  city  purposed  providing  its  own 
cement.  Before  mills  costing  nearly  $1,000,000  could  be  com- 
pleted, 100,000  barrels  of  cement  were  needed.  The  bids  from 
half  a  dozen  companies  were  identical  —  $2.25  per  barrel. 
The  city  knowing  the  legitimate  cost,  threatened  to  stop  the 
excavation  of  the  aqueduct  until  the  municipal  mills  were  run- 
ning. Before  nine  o'clock  the  next  day  the  bids  dropped  to 
$1.50  per  barrel.  Los  Angeles  used  enough  cement  on  this 
aqueduct  to  build  a  wall  10  feet  thick  and  40  feet  high  around 
Manhattan  Island. 

Miles  Standish  is  still  a  safe  guide  in  war  if  not  in  love. 

The  water  from  the  Owens  River  aqueduct  empties  into  the 
Los  Angeles  River,  from  which  the  former  supply  was  drawn. 
A  daily  supplementary  supply  approaching  300,000,000  gallons 
has  been  added,  so  that  Los  Angeles  may  treble  in  population 
for  two  decades  more  without  exhausting  it.  Until  such  an 
increase  in  population  takes  place  the  water  will  suffice  for  the 
irrigation  of  135,000  acres  of  land.  This  will  provide  for  a 
"back  country"  in  which  there  may  grow  the  population  indis- 
pensable to  the  continuance  of  any  metropolitan  city.  With 
the  intensive  cultivation  of  this  section  two  or  three  acres  will 
sustain  a  family.  The  fall  of  water  in  the  aqueduct  is  such 
that  the  larger  part  of  the  120,000  horse  power  can  be  produced 
within  47  miles  of  the  city,  below  the  cost  of  any  possible  private 
competition.  Three  and  one-half  million  dollars  of  bonds  were 
issued  in  191 1  for  a  power  plant. 

Los  Angeles  may  be  free  from  smoke  as  well  as  from  t3^hoid. 

New  York  City  Water  Supply 

It  is  not  easy  to  supply  the  average  growing  city  with  water, 
especially  in  a  populous  country  where  long  distance  supplies 
are  made  difficult  by  the  demands  of  intermediate  communities. 
When  the  largest  city  in  the  country  increases  in  population 
more  than  one-third  in  a  decade,  it  taxes  the  ingenuity  of  the 
ablest  engineers  to  supplement  an  exhausted  water  supply. 
Before  the  construction  of  the  Catskill  system  the  diiTerent 


90  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

boroughs  of  New  York  got  their  suppUes  from  different  sources. 
The  old  Croton  aqueduct  dates  back  to  1842.  It  has  been 
enlarged  more  than  once,  but  the  supply  of  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx  received  small  contributions  from  two  other  little  water- 
sheds with  a  capacity  of  about  five  per  cent  of  that  of  the  Croton 
system.  The  old  Croton  aqueduct  is  34  miles  long  with  a 
capacity  of  90  milHon  gallons  daily.  The  new  Croton  aqueduct 
is  31  miles  long  with  a  daily  capacity  of  300  million  gallons. 
There  are  about  1334  miles  of  mains  that  give  the  three  million 
people  of  these  two  boroughs  over  100  gallons  a  day  each. 

The  other  boroughs  are  dependent  upon  wells.  Brooklyn  is 
also  served  by  three  private  companies  that  furnish  a  small 
amount  of  water.  With  less  than  half  the  volume  of  water 
that  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  enjoy,  there  are  1000  miles  of 
mains  supplying  fewer  than  1,800,000  people  with  78  gallons 
each  daily.  The  boroughs  of  Queens  and  Richmond  are  also 
supplied  by  wells,  but  they  are  able  to  furnish  their  inhabitants 
with  over  100  gallons  each  per  day. 

Some  parts  of  Greater  New  York  have  been  fifty  years  behind 
other  parts. 

The  new  Catskill  supply  has  its  source  100  miles  up  the  Hud- 
son, where  1000  square  miles  of  watershed  will  eventually  fur- 
nish twice  the  present  supply  of  Greater  New  York.  Fifty  miles 
of  aqueduct  is  cut  through  soUd  rock,  55  miles  is  "  cut-and-cover  " 
tunneling,  and  10  miles  is  of  steel-pipe  construction.  A  siphon 
tunnel  carries  the  water  iioo  feet  under  the  Hudson  River. 
A  similar  tunnel  carries  the  supply  under  East  River  to  Brooklyn 
and  then  under  the  harbor  to  Staten  Island.  There  will  be 
ready  for  immediate  use  upon  the  completion  of  the  aqueduct 
500  million  gallons  —  nearly  as  much  as  the  present  supply  of 
all  the  boroughs.  The  cost  of  this  titanic  system  will  be 
$180,000,000.  With  the  probable  growth  of  New  York  the 
present  watersheds  ought  to  suffice  for  a  century.  Twenty-five 
thousand  men  have  been  employed.  Seven  villages  and  32 
cemeteries  had  to  be  removed.  Eleven  miles  of  railroad  and 
forty  miles  of  highway  had  to  be  relocated.  The  great  reser- 
voir, the  Ashokan,  has  a  capacity  that  would  submerge  the  whole 
of  Manhattan  Island  to  a  depth  of  twenty-eight  feet.  When 
full,  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir  will  stand  590  feet 
above  tide  water. 


WATER  AND  SEWERAGE  91 

The  engineering  and  financial  task  of  furnishing  New  York 
with  water  is  half  as  big  as  the  building  of  a  canal  to  connect 
two  oceans. 

Boston  Water  Supply 

The  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  under  acts  of 
1893,  investigated  the  water  supply  of  Boston  and  its  suburbs 
within  a  radius  of  ten  miles.  The  Metropolitan  Water  Com- 
mission, which  was  subsequently  estabUshed,  comprehended 
twenty-eight  cities  and  towns,  having  a  population,  in  1890,  of 
848,012.  One-quarter  of  the  population  of  the  region  was  left 
out,  including  such  large  places  as  Cambridge  and  Brookline, 
which  were  content  with  their  water  suppUes.  They  were  given 
the  privilege  of  entering  later,  as  a  number  of  the  towns  have 
done. 

It  was  found  that  the  most  available  source  for  increasing 
this  supply  was  in  the  watershed  of  the  Nashua  River,  while 
the  Boston  conduit  to  the  Sudbury  River  was  large  enough  for- 
tunately to  accommodate  50,000,000  gallons  more.  However, 
Boston  is  reaching  the  limit  of  its  supply,  and  when  it  makes  its 
next  extension,  it  will  have  to  go  as  far  afield  as  New  York  has. 
Since  the  estabUshment  of  the  Metropolitan  Waterworks  in  1895 
there  has  been  invested  $42,000,000.  The  Metropolitan  District 
includes  in  an  area  of  175  square  miles  nine  cities  and  ten  towns 
that  buy  water  from  the  Metropolitan  system  and  distribute  it 
to  their  populations,  amounting  to  over  a  million  people. 

Boston  protects  the  sources  of  its  water  supply,  shielding  even 
the  banks  of  its  reservoirs  by  landscape  gardening  and  affores- 
tation, so  that  filtration  is  unnecessary. 

Filtration 

The  adequate  disposal  of  sewage  will  remove  the  necessity 
for  the  filtration  of  water  suppHes.  Until  that  day  most  inland 
cities  will  have  to  use  filters.  In  1870  no  American  city  filtered 
its  water  supply.  Sand  filtration  was  experimentally  begun  the 
next  decade  and  mechanical  filtration  in  the  following  decade. 
By  1900,  6  per  cent  of  the  urban  population  enjoyed  filtered 
water.  In  1910,  28  per  cent  had  a  filtered  water  supply,  two- 
thirds  of  the  filtration  being  done  by  mechanical  process. 


92  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Filtration  must  deal  not  only  with  turbidity  but  with  pollu- 
tion. Even  the  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  find  it  difficult  to 
protect  their  water  supplies  against  their  own  filth.  Among 
great  cities  on  inland  streams  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Louis- 
ville, and  New  Orleans  have  been  conspicuously  successful  in 
their  recently  established  filtration  plants.  A  sediment  is  first 
gathered  by  coagulation  in  settling  basins.  The  water  is  then 
filtered  by  gravity  and  afterwards  mechanically  under  pressure, 
the  filter  medium  being  cleansed  by  reversing  the  purified  water. 

Pittsburgh  draws  its  water  supply  from  the  Allegheny  River, 
which  is  charged  with  the  industrial  and  domestic  wastes  of  an 
immense  population.  Six  miles  above  the  city  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Allegheny  River  is  a  pumping  station  which 
raises  the  water  to  a  receiving  basin.  A  great  deal  of  the  sedi- 
ment is  here  deposited,  but  the  water  flows  into  the  sedimenta- 
tion basin,  from  which  it  is  filtered  into  the  pure  water  reservoir. 
Before  the  construction  of  this  plant  the  typhoid  death  rate  in 
Pittsburgh  was  four  times  the  American  average.  The  effect 
of  filtration  in  Pittsburgh  was  shown  by  the  reduction  of  the 
death  rate  of  400,000  people  in  old  Pittsburgh  to  13  per  100,000, 
whereas  for  130,000  people  in  the  old  city  of  Allegheny,  while  it 
still  received  unfiltered  water,  it  was  47  per  100,000.  This  left 
the  favored  part  of  Pittsburgh  with  a  death  rate  twice  as  large 
as  that  of  the  principal  European  cities,  but  only  half  of  the 
American  average. 

Cincinnati  has  built  a  filtration  plant  eight  miles  above  the 
city.  The  water  is  raised  to  two  setthng  reservoirs  for  simple 
sedimentation.  It  then  flows  into  the  coagulation  basins  with 
nearly  half  of  the  suspended  matter  removed.  Thirty  to  40 
per  cent  of  the  remaining  substance  is  eliminated  in  the  coagu- 
lation basins  so  that  the  water  goes  to  the  filter  beds  with  a 
turbidity  of  only  10  to  50  parts  per  million.  It  is  subsequently 
treated  with  chlorine  gas. 

Municipal  water  supplies  now  seldom  compete  with  sanatoria 
that  advertise  mud  baths. 

Baltimore,  St.  Louis  and  Cleveland  are  completing  me- 
chanical filters  larger  than  any  others  previously  built  in  this 
country.  Baltimore  has  thirty-two  filter  units,  each  with  a 
capacity  of  four  million  gallons  for  twenty-four  hours.  It  is 
only  through  the  use  of  reenforced  concrete  that  it  has  been 


WATER   AND   SEWERAGE  93 

possible  to  build  such  large  filters.'  Philadelphia  had  an  enor- 
mous typhoid  death  rate  when  it  decided  to  filter  the  supply  of 
its  municipal  water  plant  that  has  been  the  property  of  the  city 
since  its  estabUshment  in  1799.  The  biggest  slow  sand  filtra- 
tion plant  in  the  world  was  completed  in  1908  at  a  cost  of 
$25,000,000.  In  spite  of  the  long  delay  in  meeting  this  danger- 
ous situation  the  plant  was  found  to  be  inadequate  because  of 
the  enormous  consumption  of  water  in  Philadelphia.  It  has 
therefore  spent  more  money  in  enlarging  the  filter  plant  instead 
of  introducing  meters  to  limit  the  waste  of  water. 

Philadelphia  preferred  to  strain  at  a  camel  than  to  swallow  a 
gnat. 

Chicago  Water  Supply 

The  intimate  connection  of  water  supply  and  drainage  is  best 
illustrated  by  Chicago,  as  it  has,  in  the  first  instance,  the  easiest 
access  to  an  unlimited  supply  of  water  of  any  metropolitan  city 
of  the  world.  Not  only  is  there  an  inexhaustible  reservoir  at 
hand,  but  the  city  lies  so  low  that  difficulties  of  pumping  are 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  extent  of  the  area  of  the  city 
somewhat  neutralizes  this  advantage.  In  spite  of  this  supreme 
position,  the  inadequacy  of  Chicago's  natural  drainage  and  its 
unexpectedly  rapid  growth  led  to  such  an  abuse  in  the  pollution 
of  its  own  water  supply  as  to  require  as  great  an  investment  for 
the  disposition  of  its  sewage  as  other  cities  less  advantageously 
situated  must  make  for  the  provision  of  a  water  supply. 

When  the  old  individual  wells  became  polluted  by  the  growth 
of  the  city's  wastes,  a  new  enterprise  was  created,  that  of  hauling 
water  from  the  lake  and  selling  it  to  the  inhabitants. 

In  1834  the  village  council  appropriated  $95.50  for  digging  a 
public  well.  This  supplied  only  a  little  colony  on  the  north 
side,  and  the  demand  of  the  residents  of  the  south  side  was  so 
great  that  the  individual  water  carts  and  owners  were  sup- 
planted by  a  company.  Pipes  were  extended  into  the  lake  for 
five  hundred  feet,  and  water  was  pumped  into  a  tank  with  a 
capacity  of  five  to  six  hundred  barrels.  This  predecessor  of  the 
modern  water  system  supplied  so  small  a  part  of  the  population 

» The  Baltimore  rate  of  filtration  is  125  million  gallons  per  acre  per  day,  whereas 
in  the  sand  filters  of  .\lbany,  Philadelphia  and  Washington,  the  rate  is  two  million 
five  hundred  thousand  to  six  million  gallons  per  acre  per  day. 


94  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

that  four-fifths  of  the  people  are  said  to  have  drawn  their  water 
for  domestic  use  from  the  river  or  to  have  bought  it  from  the 
water-cart  purveyors. 

The  water  wagon  lost  its  popularity  in  Chicago  a  long 
time  ago. 

In  1854  the  city  opened  its  own  waterworks.  The  water  was 
taken  from  an  inlet  basin  on  the  lake  shore  and  pumped  into  a 
reservoir  on  each  side  of  the  city.  In  1867,  the  first  tunnel  was 
completed,  extending  into  the  lake  for  a  distance  of  two  miles, 
giving  the  first  adequate  water  supply.  This  had  to  be  renewed 
after  the  fire  of  1871,  and  since  then  has  grown  rapidly  to  the 
present  enormous  system,  which  included  (1913)  six  intake 
"cribs"  in  the  lake,  at  distances  of  from  two  to  four  miles  from 
the  shore,  and  fourteen  pumping  stations  that  pumped  in  one 
day  (February  9,  191 2)  670  million  gallons. 

The  cost  of  this  system  serving  a  city  with  an  area  of  191 
square  miles  was,  in  1913,  over  fifty-six  million  dollars. 

Each  successive  extension  endeavored  to  reach  out  into  the 
lake  beyond  the  area  polluted  by  the  city's  sewage,  but  from  the 
beginning  the  sewers  had  been  constructed  to  reach  the  nearest 
outlet,  whether  river  or  lake.  Consequently  there  were  numer- 
ous sources  of  pollution,  and  the  fluctuation  of  the  water,  due 
chiefly  to  the  wind,  made  it  impossible  to  prevent  the  growing 
mass  of  sewage  from  reaching  the  cribs.  Although  the  water 
was  drawn  from  a  point  seventy  or  eighty  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  lake,  the  supply  was  always  polluted  during  storms  and 
often  at  other  times. 

Chicago  Sewerage 

The  first  system  of  sewerage  in  Chicago  was  provided  in 
1855.  Up  to  that  time  the  city's  only  artificial  device  for  drain- 
age was  in  submerged  wooden  boxes  on  a  few  of  the  principal 
streets.  These  failed  to  carry  away  the  surface  water  in  time 
of  rain  and,  as  a  result,  the  city  experienced  successive  epi- 
demics, the  death  rate  becoming  the  highest  in  the  country. 
For  the  six  years  between  1849  and  1854  the  death  rate  was 
48.92  per  thousand,  in  1854  reaching  the  enormous  figure  of 
53.9.  The  construction  of  sewers  was  not  only  of  direct  ad- 
vantage to  Chicago  but  was  indirectly  valuable  by  necessitating 


WATER  AND   SEWERAGE  95 

the  raising  of  the  city's  datum.  The  original  surveys  for  the 
sewerage  system  indicated  that  the  surface  of  the  ground  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  river  was  only  three  or  four  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  lake.  On  the  west  it  reached  a  level  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet  at  Ashland  Avenue. 

It  was  necessary  to  raise  the  grade  of  Chicago's  streets  in 
order  to  keep  the  sewers  underground. 

At  that  time  Chicago  had  the  good  fortune  to  possess  in  the 
person  of  the  city  engineer,  Mr.  E.  S.  Chesbrough,  an  experienced 
and  far-sighted  public  official.  He  saw  that  it  would  become 
necessary  to  create  an  outlet  to  the  southwest,  but,  as  that 
seemed  impossible,  he  was  sent  by  the  sewerage  commissioners 
to  Europe  in  1856  to  investigate  the  sewerage  methods  there. 
Mr.  Chesbrough's  investigation  of  the  chief  cities  of  western 
Europe  led  to  a  reorganization  of  Chicago's  sewerage  system, 
which  ultimately  resulted  in  the  drainage  canal  project,  and  was 
of  great  influence  on  the  other  cities  of  the  country,  no  one  of 
which  at  that  time  had  any  system  worthy  of  the  name. 

With  the  continued  increase  of  Chicago's  population  it  be- 
came evident  that  the  sewage  must  be  diverted  from  the  lake, 
and  happily  there  was  a  natural  course  which  it  could  follow. 
The  idea  of  turning  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan  into  the  Chicago 
River  and  thence  through  the  Desplaines,  Illinois  and  Mis- 
sissippi rivers  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  not  so  revolutionary  as 
it  seems  at  first  sight.  In  the  last  glacial  age  the  lake  doubtless 
did  drain  in  that  direction,  and  in  1674  the  great  western 
poineer,  Joliet,  said:  "We  can  quite  easily  go  to  Florida  in 
boats  by  very  good  navigation.  There  would  be  but  one  canal 
to  make,  by  cutting  only  one-half  a  league  of  prairie,  to  pass 
from  the  lake  of  the  Illinois  into  the  St.  Louis  River." 

Arrogant  urban  man  is  slow  to  learn  of  nature. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  lingering  ideal  of  a  ship  canal  from 
Lake  Michigan  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  would  have  been 
some  other  disposition  of  Chicago's  sewage.  At  the  time  when 
it  was  decided  to  construct  the  drainage  canal,  a  proposition 
was  made  by  a  Chicago  engineer,  and  supported  by  many 
prominent  citizens,  to  dig  a  tunnel  from  Chicago  to  Joliet, 
which  would  have  given  Chicago  a  low-level  drainage  system 
that  by  the  aid  of  gravity  might  have  disposed  of  the  sewage 
on  farms  with  very  much  greater  economy. 


96  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  dream  of  inland  navigation,  which  will  without  doubt 
be  reahzed,  gave  the  sanction  to  the  idea  of  a  drainage  canal. 

The  legislature  created  the  sanitary  district  of  Chicago,  a 
special  taxing  body,  witli  power  to  coordinate  the  drainage 
areas  of  Chicago,  to  turn  the  water  of  Lake  Michigan  into  the 
canal  which  should  be  constructed,  and  to  make  connection 
with  the  Desplaines  River.  The  pumping  works  at  Bridgeport 
were  enlarged,  the  Desplaines  River  was  diverted  for  several 
miles,  locks  were  constructed  at  Lockport,  thirty-three  miles 
from  Chicago,  and  an  aqueduct  built  at  JoHet,  thirty-seven 
miles  from  Chicago. 

The  first  board  of  trustees  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago 
was  elected  in  December,  1889.  It  has  worked  in  cooperation 
with  the  city  of  Chicago  and  its  suburbs.  It  has  steadily  en- 
larged its  functions  as  the  pollution  of  Lake  Michigan  continued 
over  areas  not  included  in  the  Sanitary  District.  Chicago  has 
reversed  its  sewers,  discharging  them  into  the  river  instead  of 
the  lake.  Since  the  city  lies  so  low  that  sewage  cannot  be  dis- 
posed of  by  gravity,  pumping  stations  have  been  built  by  the 
city  that  are  operated  by  the  District.  The  original  Sanitary 
District  of  Chicago  contained  185  square  miles.  It  has  since 
been  enlarged  by  the  North  Shore  District  of  78^  square  miles 
and  the  Calumet  District  of  95^  square  miles.  The  present 
Sanitary  District  has  about  the  same  area  as  Greater  New  York. 

In  spite  of  the  expenditure  of  $80,000,000  in  an  effort  to  pro- 
tect the  water  supply  of  Chicago  and  neighboring  communities, 
the  pollution  of  the  lake  continues. 

The  Sanitary  District  is  not  allowed  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment to  divert  enough  water  from  the  lake  to  make  a  satis- 
factory current  in  the  river  and  the  Drainage  Canal.  The  great 
industrial  district  of  northwest  Indiana  bordering  on  Chicago 
continues  to  defile  the  waters  of  the  lake.  The  multiplication 
of  passenger  vessels  coming  into  the  Chicago  harbors  makes  an 
increasing  source  of  pollution.  After  a  quarter  of  a  century  of 
costly  experience  Chicago  faces  the  necessity  of  filtering  both 
its  sewage  and  its  water.  Chicago  is  now  drawing  more  than 
twice  as  much  water  from  the  lake  as  the  Federal  Government 
permits,  and  must  more  than  double  its  expenditure  to  make 
the  present  system  effective. 

Chicago's  dilemma  presents  the  most  powerful  argument  for 
state  and  federal  prohibition  of  the  pollution  of  inland  waters. 


WATER  AND   SEWERAGE  97 


Sewerage 


A  scientific  system  of  sewerage  must  be  expeditious,  effective 
and  economical.  The  sewage  must  be  disposed  of  every  twenty- 
four  hours ;  it  must  be  made  inoffensive  to  the  community  and 
innocuous  to  other  communities. 

The  following  methods  may  be  said  to  be  open  to  modern 
communities:  (i)  The  simple,  primitive  device,  far  from  uni- 
versal as  yet,  of  having  one  or  two  outfalls  below  the  city. 

(2)  To  prevent  the  pollution  of  streams  by  both  organic  matter 
and  factory  wastes,   involving  the  separation   of   the  sludge. 

(3)  The  distribution  of  sewage  on  broad  areas  for  redeeming 
waste  land.  (4)  Sewage  farming  for  market  gardening  or  rais- 
ing cattle.  (5)  Incineration.  Many  American  cities  still  dump 
the  sewage  by  the  shortest  route  into  the  nearest  waterway. 
Cities  are  rapidly  multiplying  that  protect  at  least  themselves 
against  the  offensiveness  of  crude  sewage  in  their  own  waterway. 
The  consideration  that  is  necessary  to  devise  intercepting  sewers 
and  outfalls  below  the  city  often  leads  to  sewage  treatment. 
This  is,  of  course,  most  natural  where  a  city  is  protecting  its 
own  water  supply. 

Cities  still  foul  their  own  nests. 

Sewage  sludge  must  be  separated  from  the  effluent  not  only 
because  of  its  offensiveness,  but  its  organic  value.  In  addition 
to  screening,  sludge  may  be  separated  by  sedimentation  or  septic 
tanks.  Many  small  cities  use  septic  tanks  where  the  sludge  is 
deposited  long  enough  to  be  completely  freed  of  putrescent 
matter.  The  greater  volume  of  sewage  in  larger  cities,  especially 
with  the  extravagant  American  water  supplies,  increases  the 
difficulty  and  expense.  For  economy's  sake  cities  discharge 
the  sludge  into  the  sea,  as  in  Boston.  Even  New  York,  as  a 
result  of  minute  investigation  into  the  various  alternatives, 
purposes  to  follow  the  method  of  London  and  carry  its  sludge 
out  to  sea.  Another  method  is  to  deposit  crude  sewage  on  the 
land,  successfully  done  in  Pasadena  and  Framingham.  This 
involves  a  large  available  area  of  waste  land.  Nuisance  is 
avoided,  as  well  as  the  menace  of  flies,  by  depositing  the  sludge 
dry  on  the  land.  At  Worcester  18  million  gallons  of  sewage  is 
received  daily  at  the  chemical  precipitation  works.  The  sludge, 
which  contains  about  90  per  cent  moisture  when  it  comes  from 


98  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

the  tanks,  is  treated  with  lime  —  55  pounds  to  each  one  thou- 
sand gallons  of  sludge.  Moisture  is  reduced  by  pressure  and 
the  sludge  cake  is  used  to  fill  in  low  waste  land. 

The  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  at  Lawrence  furnishes 
information  on  all  methods  of  sewage  disposal. 

The  new  Baltimore  system  disposes  of  sludge  to  farmers. 
The  sludge  is  first  digested  so  that  it  gives  but  little  offense  and 
then  it  is  dried  upon  under-drained  sand  beds.  Baltimore  has 
adopted  the  so-called  Imhoff  or  Emscher  tank  that  has  been 
perfected  in  Germany.  This  latest  improvement  upon  the 
sludge  process  turns  out  an  inoffensive  sludge  with  the  greatest 
economy  of  time  and  space.  It  has  been  used  successfully  at 
the  Pennypack  Creek  Sewage  Treatment  Works,  built  by  Phila- 
delphia to  protect  its  water  supply.  The  method  is  also  em- 
ployed at  Atlanta.  Where  the  sewage  and  garbage  disposal 
plant  can  be  united,  it  is  possible  to  consume  the  sludge.  The 
amount  of  moisture  remaining  in  it,  even  after  the  best  processes, 
makes  this  method  expensive  unless  it  can  be  combined  with 
the  disposal  of  the  rest  of  the  city's  refuse. 

A  polluted  stream  is  uncivilized. 

New  York  Sewerage 

The  disposal  of  sewage  in  a  world  metropolis  like  New  York 
is  an  overwhelming  administrative  problem,  but  one  with 
which  modern  science  is  perfectly  able  to  cope.  New  York  is 
making  Herculean  endeavors  to  deal  with  the  subject  by  big 
New  York,  rather  than  great  scientific  methods.  Every  24 
hours  it  is  estimated  there  is  poured  into  the  Harlem  River 
nearly  100  million  gallons  of  sewage,  into  the  North  River 
132  miUion,  and  into  the  East  River  twice  as  much.  This 
process  has  been  going  on  since  New  York  was  settled.  It 
might  be  supposed  that  the  rivers  would  be  cleansed  by  tidal 
movements,  but  this  sewage  could  not  get  by  Sandy  Hook  and 
what  is  not  destroyed  by  septic  processes  in  the  water,  is  washed 
back  and  forth  by  the  tides.  There  is  a  constant  deposit  inter- 
fering with  navigation  and  health.  Every  year  the  Department 
of  Docks  and  Ferries  dredges  40,000  cubic  yards  of  deposit  from 
the  slips  of  the  lower  East  River  alone,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
rest  of  the  water  front  and  the  work  of  private  enterprises. 


WATER  AND   SEWERAGE  99 

Father  Knickerbocker  is  a  twentieth-century  Sisyphus. 

A  sewerage  commission  has  been  organized  which  has  drawn 
up  a  plan  of  sewage  disposal.  The  Harlem  River  is  to  be  pro- 
tected by  trunk  sewers  leading  to  a  large  settling  basin  at 
Ward's  Island,  whence  the  sludge  will  be  taken  out  and  burned 
or  carried  to  sea.  A  similar  system  will  protect  the  north  shore 
of  Long  Island,  carrying  the  sludge  to  an  island  in  the  Sound. 
Manhattan  Island  is  to  be  served  by  small  settling  basins  at 
the  foot  of  cross  streets  where  the  solids  will  be  incinerated. 
Brooklyn  is  to  be  relieved  by  great  trunk  sewers  that  will  reach 
to  Coney  Island  and  thence  to  a  settling  basin  to  be  built  three 
miles  from  shore.  From  this  basin  the  sludge  will  be  taken  in 
tank  steamers  and  dumped  loo  miles  out  at  sea.  This  system 
already  includes  a  huge  sewer  siphoning  under  the  East  River 
as  the  water  supply  is  siphoned  under  the  Hudson  River.  This 
trunk  sewer  running  for  13  miles  from  Manhattan  is  costing 
nearly  $23,000,000. 

All  the  abandoned  farms  of  New  England  might  be  redeemed 
by  the  organic  matter  that  will  be  wasted  on  Mother  Carey's 
Chickens. 

Boston  Sewerage 

The  most  effective  protection  of  streams  in  the  United  States 
is  doubtless  found  in  the  metropoHtan  sewerage  system  of 
Boston.  The  first  legislation  for  the  protection  of  Boston  was 
introduced  in  1 709  and  was  designed  to  harmonize  the  differences 
between  the  individual  owners  of  the  various  sewers  and  drains. 
In  1837  the  office  of  superintendent  of  sewers  was  estabUshed 
and  the  beginning  made  of  the  construction  of  a  more  uniform 
system.  As  a  result  of  the  growing  appreciation  of  Boston's  ab- 
normal death  rate,  which  was  30.5  in  1872,  the  Boston  sewer- 
age commission  was  appointed  in  1875.  ^t  that  time  cess- 
pools were  in  general  use.  There  were  125  miles  of  sewers  empty- 
ing directly  into  the  bay  and  it  was  not  uncommon  at  high  tide 
for  the  sewage  to  back  up  in  the  pipes. 

Boston  had  as  much  trouble  with  the  sea  as  Canute. 

In  1877  the  Moon  Island  site  for  discharge  in  Boston  harbor 
was  chosen  and  from  that  time  to  December  31,  1885,  over 
$5,000,000  were  spent  on  the  Boston  sewerage  system.  In  1892 
an  act  was  adopted  which  endeavors  to  secure  a  just  form  of 


lOO  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

taxation  and  a  unified  sewerage  system.  In  1897  the  legisla- 
tion was  enacted  which  gave  the  city  council  of  Boston  the  right 
to  appropriate  a  sum  not  to  exceed  $1,000,000  in  any  one  year 
for  the  construction  of  sewerage  works.  The  act  also  provides 
that  the  board  of  street  commissioners,  with  the  approval  of 
the  mayor,  shall  have  authority  to  regulate  all  the  natural  water- 
ways of  the  city. 

The  later  acts  only  facilitate  the  cooperation  of  the  authorities 
of  Boston  with  the  Metropohtan  Sewerage  Commissioners. 
This  body  provides  for  the  drainage  of  twenty-five  cities  and 
towns  in  the  metropolitan  district,  including  the  valleys  of  the 
Neponset,  Charles,  and  Mystic  rivers.^  All  of  the  Boston 
Metropolitan  sewage  empties  at  two  points  into  the  bay  (except 
one  million  gallons  a  day  that  is  treated  at  the  Clinton  Sewage 
Disposal  Works).  In  this  way,  while  the  crude  sewage  is  dis- 
charged freely  into  the  sea,  the  general  system  has  the  immense 
advantage  of  deahng  with  an  area  of  191  square  miles  and  pro- 
tecting from  pollution  all  of  the  many  streams  within  that  area. 

Boston  casts  more  than  bread  upon  the  waters. 

Baltimore  and  New  Orleans  Sewerage 

Baltimore  and  New  Orleans  enjoy  the  advantage  that  comes 
to  cities  that  postpone  their  public  enterprises  until  the  best 
methods  have  been  developed.  Both  cities  have  had  a  long 
dishonorable  record  with  open  sewers  carrying  the  city's  foul- 
ness down  the  gutters  and  into  canals  or  streams  with  obvious 
insanitary  conditions.  Baltimore  has  had  a  long  debate  over 
the  sewerage  system  because  of  the  great  expense  involved  in 
doing  it  by  the  most  approved  methods,  and  thereby  protecting 
the  oyster  beds  ten  miles  or  more  from  the  city  in  Chesapeake 
Bay. 

It  has  finally  been  decided  to  build  a  system  in  accordance 
with  the  best  scientific  principles.  The  city  has  covered  over 
Jones  Falls,  a  vile  stream,  and  incidentally  secured  land  for  the 
construction  of  a  very  much  needed  thoroughfare  through  the 
heart  of  the  city,  connecting  its  water  and  steam  transportation 
systems.  Having  torn  up  streets  and  constructed  sewers,  the 
opportunity  for  repaving  has  been  made  and  embraced.     The 

•  Appendix  i.     Statistics  of  Boston's  sewerage  system. 


WATER  AND   SEWERAGE  lOI 

sewerage  system  covers  an  area  of  32  square  miles  of  hilly  coun- 
try, crossing  two  railroad  tunnels  and  two  streams,  following 
steep  grades,  quite  a  little  of  it  running  below  tidal  level.  It 
connects  with  every  one  of  the  125,000  houses  in  the  city.  The 
sewage  is  to  be  purified  before  the  effluent  is  discharged  into  the 
harbor. 

The  labors  of  Hercules  in  the  Augean  stables  no  longer  seem 
miraculous. 

To  carry  the  natural  drainage  of  Jones  Falls  and  provide  for 
the  future  drainage  needs  of  the  city  three  conduits,  each  twenty 
feet  in  width,  built  of  concrete  and  paved  with  vitrified  brick, 
have  been  constructed  in  the  old  bed  of  the  stream.  Connect- 
ing with  these  is  a  twenty-nine  foot  drainage  tunnel  under  Guil- 
ford Avenue.  Only  one  of  the  conduits  will  ordinarily  be 
used,  the  other  two  being  available  for  flood  water.  Over  the 
conduits  a  roof  made  by  earth  filling  has  been  constructed  and 
the  pavement  above  this  constitutes  a  street.  The  Fallsway  is 
costing  $1,000,000,  and  the  entire  sewerage  system,  iioo  miles 
in  length,  is  costing  $20,000,000. 

Baltimore  has  become  a  modern  city  in  sanitation  at  the  cost 
of  a  Super  Dreadnaught. 

New  Orleans,  lying  below  the  level  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
has  been  dependent  upon  huge  drainage  canals  connecting  with 
gutters  down  which  the  foulness  of  the  city  flowed.  The  new 
intercepting  sewer  system  puts  all  of  these  services  underground. 
It  sets  free  the  drainage  canals  and  they  are  being  transformed 
into  boulevards  much  after  the  manner  of  the  metamorphosed 
fortifications  of  Paris.  New  Orleans  has  escaped  from  the 
eighteenth-century  spirit  that  let  a  franchise  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  sewerage  system  to  the  New  Orleans  Sewerage  Com- 
pany at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Pasadena's  Sewer  Farm 

The  Pasadena  sewer  farm  was  estabUshed  in  1887  when  300 
acres  of  land  were  purchased  at  $125  per  acre.  Subsequently 
the  farm  was  increased  in  area  more  than  50  per  cent.  It  was 
secured  in  the  face  of  the  protests  of  citizens  ignorant  of  sani- 
tary laws  and  suspicious  that  a  nuisance  would  be  introduced 
into  the  neighborhood.     At  the  entrance  to  the  farm  is  found  a 


I02  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

settling  tank  by  means  of  which  the  coarse  materials  are  ex- 
tracted before  the  filtration  process  begins.  The  sewage  is  dis- 
charged at  the  rate  of  a  cubic  foot  a  second  about  7  a.m.  and 
reaches  its  maximum  of  approximately  2^  cubic  feet  at  11  a.m. 
This  means  a  deposit  of  over  a  million  gallons  of  sewage  every 
twenty-four  hours.  In  1913  the  farm  was  so  divided  that  65 
acres  were  devoted  to  an  orange  orchard,  no  acres  to  an  Eng- 
lish walnut  orchard,  142  acres  to  alfalfa,  and  the  remainder  to 
grain  and  hay. 

There  is  a  state  horticultural  station  at  the  farm  in  which 
citrus,  walnut,  and  other  trees  are  raised  experimentally  and 
sold  to  the  pubhc.  A  part  of  this  station  is  devoted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  used  in  the  city  parks  and 
street  parkings. 

The  topography  of  the  farm  is  such  that  a  mountain  torrent 
cleans  out  a  gravel  and  rock  quarry,  thus  furnishing  additional 
revenue.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  191 2,  the  receipts 
were  about  $20,000  from  the  sale  of  hogs,  agricultural,  and  horti- 
cultural products,  rock  and  gravel.  The  expense  of  operation 
was  a  Httle  over  $5000,  leaving  a  surplus  of  nearly  $15,000  to  be 
devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the  farm  and  sewage  disposal. 

The  sewage  is  turned  into  the  walnut  groves  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  are  off,  about  December  i,  and  kept  there  until  the  foliage 
comes  on  about  April  i.  The  remainder  of  the  year  sewage  is 
used  in  the  open  fields.  The  sewage  is  not  run  upon  any  area 
longer  than  a  few  days  at  a  time,  and  then  that  area  is  allowed 
to  become  sufiiciently  dry  to  be  plowed  or  cultivated.  The 
sewage  is  thus  always  being  absorbed  into  the  ground  and  not 
left  upon  the  surface.  Under  the  guidance  of  an  exceptionally 
intelligent  superintendent  it  has  proved  so  great  a  success  that 
Pasadena  has  entered  into  a  contract  with  South  Pasadena  and 
Alhambra,  whereby  the  three  cities  shall  estabhsh  a  common 
sewage  farm  elsewhere  and  share  the  expense  and  benefits. 

Pasadena  will  discontinue  the  use  of  its  present  sewage  farm 
at  the  rate  of  one-third  a  year.     Pasadena's  farm  is  advan- 
tageously situated  because  of  the  climatic  conditions,  giving  an 
exceptional  amount  of  sunshine  for  dryness  and  cultivation. 
It  is  cheaper  to  use  sewage  than  to  throw  it  away. 


WATER  AND   SEWERAGE  103 


Public  Comfort  Stations 


Public  lavatories  or  comfort  stations  that  are  so  adequately 
provided  in  European  cities  have  been  found  for  many  years  in 
American  parks.  American  municipalities  until  recently  have 
been  peculiarly  deficient  in  the  provision  of  these  necessities. 
New  York  and  Boston  many  years  ago  estabUshed  inadequate 
comfort  stations,  but  the  general  demand  for  these  conveniences 
in  American  cities  is  very  recent.  As  in  so  many  other  instances, 
American  cities  are  now  trying  to  redeem  their  previous  neglect 
and  pubhc  comfort  stations  were  found  in  at  least  forty  cities  in 
1914.1  New  York  established  the  first  in  Astor  Place,  May, 
1869.  The  most  ample  provisions  are  still  made  by  New  York 
and  Boston,  each  having  over  a  dozen  outside  of  their  public 
institutions  and  parks.  Including  railway,  subway  and  ele- 
vated stations,  New  York  claims  254  free  conveniences.  Some 
of  the  public  comfort  stations  in  American  cities  now  compare 
favorably  with  the  best  abroad.^ 

The  average  public  comfort  station  costs  from  $5000  to 
$15,000  for  construction  and  about  $5000  annually  for  operation. 
Youngstown  has  included  an  infants'  dressing  room  in  its 
women's  department  and  the  whole  station  only  cost  $2500. 

Congress  appropriated  $50,000  for  the  two  public  comfort 
stations  in  Washington.  All  the  important  stations  in  America 
were  visited  and  the  Washington  stations  are  supposed  to  repre- 
sent the  last  word  in  public  comfort  station  architecture,  rising 
to  the  latest  requirements  in  light,  heat  and  ventilation.  At- 
tendants in  both  the  men's  and  women's  departments  conduct 
information  bureaus.  There  is  a  public  telephone  and  a  city 
directory.  Each  woman's  station  has  a  rest  room  containing  a 
sanitary  reed  couch.  Bundles  may  be  checked,  shoes  polished, 
and  toilet  articles  are  for  sale,  including  individual  combs  and 
sanitary  napkins  at  cost.  The  public  conveniences  are  entirely 
free.     The  patronage  runs  up  to  10,000  a  day. 

The  public  comfort  stations  in  Atlantic  City  were  built  under 
the  most  difficult  conditions  on  the  ocean  side  of  the  Board- 
walk. They  are,  however,  impressive  buildings  of  reenforced 
concrete,  utilizing  the  entire  width  of  the  Boardwalk.     Minne- 

1  A  list  of  these  cities  will  be  found  in  Appeadix  2.  '  Appendix  3. 


I04  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

apolis  has  completed  a  public  convenience  station  as  a  contri- 
bution to  its  civic  entrance.  It  is  part  of  a  monumental  build- 
ing facing  a  dignified  triangle  made  by  the  divergence  of  the 
chief  business  streets  of  Minneapolis.  It  is  much  mor^;  than  a 
public  comfort  station,  for  it  indicates  how  these  conveniences 
can  be  organically  incorporated  into  a  pubUc  monument  or  in- 
stitution of  dignity,  obliterating  the  ancient  prudishness  that 
compelled  citizens  to  patronize  hotels,  theaters  and  saloons  in 
lieu  of  adequate  public  service.' 

Public  Drinking  Fountains 

Another  aid  to  sanitation  and  temperance  is  the  drinking 
fountain.  For  many  years.  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin,  has  provided 
artesian  water  at  the  corners  of  its  business  streets  because  it 
had  this  pure  supply  in  limited  amount  owing  to  the  general 
dependence  of  the  city  on  Mississippi  River  water.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  legislation  against  public  drinking  cups  and 
the  invention  of  the  bubbhng  fountain,  many  cities  have  sup- 
plemented the  occasional  W.  C.  T.  U.  or  Humane  Society  Foun- 
tain by  more  generous  public  provision.  Lansing  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  city  to  introduce  a  general  system  of  bubbling 
fountains.  Rochester  is  inaugurating  an  economical  system  by 
attaching  drinking  fountains  to  its  fire  hydrants.  Chicago 
leads  in  drinking  fountains,  they  being  found  in  the  residential 
as  well  as  in  the  business  sections.  Eighteen  were  installed  in 
191 2,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  in  1913  and  four  hundred  more 
in  1914. 

Chicago  anticipates  the  prohibition  wave. 

Public  Laundries 

The  facihties  for  cleanliness  in  American  cities  are  largely 
accidental.  The  movement  for  public  baths  languished  while 
the  suspicion  prevailed  that  everybody  had  access  to  a  private 

■  The  public's  readiness  to  use  facilities  is  found  in  New  York,  where  with  cold 
water  28  per  cent  of  the  public  comfort  station  patrons  washed  their  hands,  with 
hot  and  cold  water  82  per  cent.  Where  there  was  common  soap  16  per  cent  washed, 
with  soap  from  a  holder,  42  per  cent.  Where  there  were  no  towels  22  per  cent 
washed,  with  common  towels  60  per  cent,  with  individual  towels  90  per  cent. 


WATER   AND   SEWERAGE  105 

bath  tub.  Public  baths  had  become  quite  general  before  the 
estabhshment  of  public  laundries.'  There  were  eleven  public 
laundries  reported  in  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Bulletin  in  1904. 
This  number  seems  to  have  grown  to  no  more  than  sixteen  in 
1914,  and  five  of  these  are  in  Baltimore.  The  first  public 
laundry  in  the  United  States  was  opened  by  the  Public  Baths 
Association  of  Philadelphia  in  May,  1898.  This  original  public 
laundry  did  not  prove  satisfactory  because  many  women  refused 
to  wash  in  the  tubs  used  by  men.  Separate  wash  houses  were 
then  established.  These  are  open  daily  from  8  a.m.  until  3  p.m. 
There  are  eight  units  for  women  and  six  for  men.  The  women 
are  charged  five  cents  an  hour.  The  men,  who  come  chiefly 
for  the  purpose  of  washing  their  own  clothes,  pay  ten  cents  for 
a  bath  and  the  washing  facilities.  The  bath  is  taken  while 
their  clothes  are  in  the  steam  dryer.  In  191 2  there  were  only 
3000  men  and  1400  women  patrons. 

The  public  laundry  of  Cincinnati  is  used  to  save  the  municipal 
laundry  bills  and  only  on  certain  days  of  the  week  is  thrown 
open  to  the  pubUc.  The  best  modern  appliances  are  available 
at  a  charge  of  ten  cents  for  every  four  hours'  use. 

Baltimore  leads  the  country  in  public  laundry  provisions. 
These  Baltimore  laundries  average  seven  washing  units  apiece, 
used  by  22,500  people  in  1913.  The  charge  is  three  cents  an 
hour.  The  receipts  in  1913  were  $1500,  which  was  insufficient 
to  pay  the  salaries  of  the  matrons,  without  regard  to  interest  on 
the  investment,  upkeep  or  depreciation.  The  laundries,  how- 
ever, are  in  public  bathhouses,  so  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the 
precise  expense.  At  each  laundry  the  city  maintains  a  store 
where  washing  essentials  may  be  purchased.  The  laundries 
are  open  from  8  in  the  morning  to  8  in  the  evening  for  use  by 
women  only,  except  in  one  case  where  both  sexes  are  admitted. 
In  that  instance  the  women  are  Umited  to  Mondays  and  Tues- 
days. 

The  appointments  are  very  simple,  so  that  they  can  be  used 
by  the  inexpert.  Drainage  and  ventilation  are  adequate.  The 
matrons  instruct  the  patrons  regarding  the  use  of  the  apparatus 
and  give  general  supervision.  In  fifteen  years  there  has  been 
no  difficulty  from  contagious  diseases.     It  is  estimated  that  not 

^For  public  baths  see  pp.  307-311. 


Io6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

quite  half  of  the  women  in  the  congested  district  who  need  the 
laundry  patronize  it  as  yet.  One  reason  is  the  absence  of  a  day 
nursery  to  care  for  the  children  of  these  women.  About  7500 
white  women  use  the  laundries  at  the  three  Walters  Baths  and 
at  the  Greenmount  Avenue  Baths. 

The  largest  class  of  patrons  consists  of  8500  colored  women, 
who  come  from  the  alleys  and  crowded  tenements  or  from 
houses  where  they  are  domestic  servants  to  the  Argyle  Avenue 
Bath  House.  The  third  class  of  laundry  patrons  are  5000  to 
6000  men  a  year  who  wash  their  own  clothing  in  one  of  the 
laundries.  For  six  cents  they  can  get  a  bath  and  wash  their 
clothes.  The  success  of  the  Baltimore  laundries  leaves  no  excuse 
for  those  cities  that  have  not  made  similar  provisions. 

The  jest  about  the  great  unwashed  applies  to  municipalities 
more  than  to  citizens.  Municipal  sanitation  is  a  great  civic 
cleanser. 


CHAPTER   VII 
PUBLIC   HEALTH 

Vital  Statistics 

Health  is  undoubtedly  the  most  pressing  interest  of  the 
municipaHty.  Although  industrial  conditions  are  responsible 
for  many  accidents  and  much  ill  health,  the  municipality  has 
a  power  of  control  over  sanitation  that  it  has  not  over  the  eco- 
nomic status  of  its  citizens.  The  death  rate  is  steadily  falling 
throughout  the  United  States,  more  rapidly  in  urban  than  in 
rural  centers.  The  progress  is  immensely  encouraging  until 
one  measures  it  by  the  neglected  possibiUties.  It  is  estimated 
by  the  Census  Bureau  that  the  national  death  rate  for  1913 
was  about  14  per  1000  of  the  estimated  population,  a  big  de- 
crease from  the  average  death  rate  of  a  decade  earlier,  which 
was  over  16.  Had  the  same  rate  prevailed  in  1913,  there  would 
have  been  184,000  more  deaths. 

The  conservation  of  life  ought  to  be  the  greatest  lure  that 
citizens  or  health  departments  or  municipal  administrations 
could  have. 

The  greatest  reduction  of  the  death  rate  in  the  decade  has  been 
enjoyed  by  the  metropolis  of  the  country  and  its  suburbs. 
New  York,  Jersey  City  and  Newark  all  reduced  their  death 
rate  20  per  cent.  Still  the  death  rates  of  these  cities  ranged 
about  17,  while  no  northwestern  city  had  over  14  per  1000. 
The  death  rate  of  the  Twin  Cities  for  the  five-year  period 
1906-10  was  II,  that  of  Portland,  Oregon,  10,  Seattle  less  than 
10.  In  the  year  1913  the  death  rate  of  all  these  cities  was  still 
lower.  The  possibilities  of  sanitation  in  cosmopolitan  New  York 
City  are  indicated  by  the  fact  that  its  death  rate  is  lower  than 
that  of  Albany,  Pittsburgh,  Boston,  Fall  River,  Lowell,  or  that 
of  any  city  where  there  is  a  large  negro  population. ^  The 
death  rate  of  Manhattan,  the  most  congested  spot  on  the  globe, 

*  See  Appendix  i  for  explanation  of  New  York's  declining  death  rate. 
107 


Io8  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

was  only  five  points  higher  than  the  death  rate  of  Greater  New 
York,  and  it  was  more  than  i  in  looo  lower  than  the  Borough  of 
Richmond,  which  embraces  all  of  rural  Staten  Island.  The  death 
rate  of  overgrown  Chicago  for  that  five-year  period,  1906-10 
(a  much  more  accurate  statement  than  any  given  year),  was 
less  than  that  of  classic  New  Haven  or  Puritan  Cambridge  or 
William  Penn's  Philadelphia  or  Roger  Williams'  Providence. 

It  is  within  the  power  of  municipal  oflScials  now  to  save  and 
enrich  thousands  of  lives  annually  by  easily  applied  methods, 
with  an  economy  that  will  cover  the  cost  of  preventive  measures 
a  hundred-fold. 

Professor  Irving  Fisher  calculates  that  there  are  always  3,000,- 
000  people  ill  in  the  United  States,  representing  a  waste  of  a 
billion  and  a  half  dollars.  Tuberculosis  alone  is  responsible  for 
the  illness  of  half  a  miUion  people.  A  preventable  disease, 
like  tuberculosis,  costs  the  country  $350,000,000  a  year,  and 
malaria  $100,000,000.  Yet  malaria  has  been  completely 
stamped  out  in  the  older  portions  of  the  country,  and  we  have 
at  our  finger  tips  the  means  of  suppressing  typhoid.  The  re- 
duction in  the  death  rate  from  typhoid  fever  is  one  of  the  most 
encouraging  advances  noted  in  this  country.  The  European 
standard  of  10  or  fewer  per  100,000  is  now  reached  by  many 
American  cities.  In  two  3-year  periods  New  York,  Chicago 
and  Boston  had  rates  lower  than  9 ;  Seattle,  Cincinnati  and 
Newark,  New  Jersey,  ranged  from  6|  to  8. 

The  worst  thing  about  typhoid  is  that  it  is  no  respecter  of 
persons. 

An  encouraging  phenomenon  in  the  warfare  against  typhoid 
is  the  immense  improvement  due  to  the  protection  of  the  water 
supply.  It  is  estimated  in  Pittsburgh  that  the  filtration  of  the 
water  of  the  Allegheny  River  is  annually  saving  7000  typhoid 
cases  (sordidly  estimated  at  $150  per  case)  and  500  lives  (meas- 
ured at  $5000  per  life)  —  a  total  of  three  and  one-half  millions. 
The  reason  for  making  this  commercial  statement  of  life  values 
is  that  such  economy  for  two  years  covers  the  cost  of  installing 
the  filter  plant.  The  filtration  of  water  in  Philadelphia  reduced 
the  typhoid  rate  in  less  than  a  decade  to  one-fifth  or  one-sixth 
its  former  proportions.^     Innumerable   other   cases   could   be 

'  Chicago's  average  typjhoid  rate  for  a  period  of  ten  years,  beginning  with  1903, 
was  16.5  per  100,000.     The  range  was  very  wide,  from  7.5  in  1912  to  31.8  in  1903, 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  109 

quoted  showing  the  progress  made  in  coping  with  this  known 
preventable  disease.  Yet  there  are  said  to  be  more  cases  of 
typhoid  fever  in  the  United  States  than  of  plague  in  India.  In 
1910  thirty-two  principal  European  cities,  with  a  population 
of  31,500,000,  had  an  average  typhoid  fever  rate  of  6.5,  while 
the  fifty  American  cities  of  over  100,000  population,  totaling 
20,000,000,  had  a  typhoid  death  rate  of  25.  This  indicates  that 
36,000  cases  of  typhoid  and  3600  deaths  were  preventable  in 
those  cities  alone  by  the  use  of  known  methods. 
The  deliberate  taking  of  life  is  homicide. 

Housing 

Municipal  health  begins  with  water  supply  and  housing. 
Every  community  recognizes  the  former.  No  American  city 
has  undertaken  municipal  housing,  following  the  precedents  of 
Europe.  The  most  drastic  regulation  of  the  housing  problem 
has  taken  place  in  New  York  City,  where  a  Tenement  House 
Commission  was  appointed  in  1894.  As  a  result  of  its  investiga- 
tions a  Tenement  House  Act  was  passed  in  1901  that  would  have 
transformed  New  York  if  it  had  been  possible  to  get  rid  of  all  the 
old  tenements.  As  it  is,  a  million  and  a  half  of  people  have  been 
housed  in  new  tenements  built  according  to  the  public  require- 
ments. Over  300,000  apartments,  costing  three-quarters  of  a 
billion  dollars,  guarantee  that  these  people  shall  have  outside 
light  and  air  in  every  room,  sink  and  running  water  within  the 
apartment,  and  a  private  water  closet,  while  two-thirds  of 
the  people  have  a  private  bath.  All  of  these  tenements  and 
many  of  the  older  ones  are  now  provided  with  fire  escapes. 
Every  new  tenement  above  six  stories  in  height  must  be  fireproof, 
while  the  smaller  ones  are  required  to  have  fireproof  stairs. 

In  the  face  of  opposition  by  speculative  landlords,  the  most 
congested  city  in  the  world  has  adopted  a  new  standard  of 
living. 

The  death  rate  has  been  reduced  from  nearly  nineteen  in 
the  thousand  at  the  time  of  the   adoption  of  the  Tenement 

because  Chicago  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  guarding  its  water  and  milk  supplies. 
However,  it  has  come  down  from  173  per  100,000  in  1891.  Providence  —  a  city  of 
a  quarter  of  a  million  people  —  has  reduced  its  typhoid  death  rate  from  42  in  1S84  tc 
an  average  between  10  and  12  in  these  latter  years. 


no  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

House  Law  to  thirteen  and  a  half  in  1913.  These  figures  mean 
that  over  20,000  hves  a  year  are  saved  that  would  have  been 
lost  under  the  old  conditions.  The  result  of  these  restrictions 
has  been  to  compel  the  erection  of  tenements  on  a  larger  scale 
than  formerly.  The  old  houses,  built  on  a  lot  25  by  100  feet, 
necessarily  unsanitary  fire  traps,  have  given  way  to  houses  with 
a  50-foot  frontage,  sometimes  built  in  multiple  sections  occupy- 
ing most  of  a  city  block.  The  original  Tenement  House  De- 
partment, organized  by  Robert  W.  de  Forest  and  Lawrence 
Veiller,  employing  a  staff  of  385  at  an  expense  of  $400,000  a 
year,  had  grown  to  a  staff  of  just  double  the  size,  spending  more 
than  twice  as  much  in  1913. 

These  improvements  have  not  all  taken  place  in  crowded 
Manhattan.  Between  1909  and  1914  the  number  of  dark  rooms 
in  Brooklyn  were  reduced  from  192,573  to  8016.  The  number 
of  windowless  rooms  were  reduced  from  nearly  60,000  to  half  a 
thousand.  The  experience  of  New  York  has  been  made  avail- 
able for  the  other  cities  of  the  state.  The  legislation  of  1913 
protects  all  the  second-class  cities. 

There  is  at  last  a  genuine  interest  in  housing  in  American 
cities.  The  National  Housing  Association  reports  one  hundred 
and  seventy-seven  cities  and  towns  taking  up  the  problem  of 
housing  —  a  subject  that  was  left  to  chance  twenty  years  ago. 

Prolonged  agitation  has  led  to  a  revision  of  the  conditions  in 
Washington.  The  City  of  Magnificent  Distances  has  had  such 
spacious  blocks  that  its  poorer  population,  especially  the 
colored  people,  have  been  housed  on  alleys.  Alleys  were  not 
provided  in  the  city  plan,  so  that  many  of  them  had  become 
cul-de-sacs.  The  hygienic  and  moral  conditions  were  incredible 
in  the  capital  city  of  the  country.  Washington  has  always  been 
handicapped  by  real  estate  speculation.  The  lack  of  local  self- 
government  and  the  remoteness  of  national  legislators  have 
made  the  capital  city  vulnerable  to  real  estate  and  banking 
interests  that  have  had  the  ready  assistance  of  congressmen 
who  have  profited  by  shifting  real  estate  values.  It  is  therefore 
in  the  face  of  the  business  interests  that  a  heroic  bill  has  been 
passed,  providing  that 

The  use  or  occupation  of  any  building  or  other  structure  erected  or 
placed  on  or  along  any  such  alley  as  a  dwelling  or  residence  or  place  of 
abode  by  any  person  or  persons  is  hereby  declared  injurious  to  life,  to  public 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  III 

health,  morals,  safety  and  welfare  of  said  District,  and  such  use  or  occu- 
pation of  any  such  building  or  structure  on,  from  and  after  the  ist  day  of 
July,  1918,  shall  be  unlawful. 

Massachusetts  cities  are  the  only  ones  that  have  had  a  reason- 
able limit  to  skyscrapers,  even  Boston  being  entirely  free  from 
such  monstrosities  until  a  lamentable  concession  was  made  to 
the  Federal  Government  permitting  the  erection  of  a  Custom 
House  tower.  Massachusetts  cities,  however,  have  had  their 
grave  difficulties  from  small  tenements.  What  is  known  as 
the  three-decker  is  a  three-story  frame  tenement,  that  has  proved 
to  be  a  popular  and  profitable  investment,  too  small  to  incite 
the  concern  that  New  York  tenements  have,  but  large  enough 
to  make  unprofitable  the  rental  of  single  and  double  houses. 
The  Tenement  House  Act  of  191 2  affects  all  the  Massachusetts 
towns  and  is  the  broadest  building  law  thus  far  passed  in 
America.'  Twenty-three  communities  have  voted  to  accept 
the  provisions  of  this  act.  The  three-decker  is  virtually  ex- 
cluded, as  such  structures  must  be  fireproof. 

People  are  still  housed  by  luck,  but  good  housing  is  no  longer 
merely  good  luck. 

Municipal  Markets 

Municipal  markets  in  American  cities  are  an  inheritance 
from  the  days  before  the  great  development  of  private  grocers 
and  butchers.  Fewer  than  half  of  the  American  cities  report 
pubUc  markets  and  only  fourteen  have  an  investment  of  over 
$10,000.^  Municipalities  are  said  to  spend  twice  as  much  on 
cemeteries  and  crematories  as  on  markets.  Some  cities,  like 
Baltimore,  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  New  Orleans,  began 
very  early.  Boston  has  a  historical  market  under  Faneuil  Hall, 
but  it  has  not  maintained  the  traditions  of  American  freedom  as 
well  as  the  auditorium  above.  Three  municipal  markets  were 
estabUshed  in  Baltimore  by  the  state  legislature  before  the  in- 
corporation of  the  city  in  1796.  Baltimore  now  owns  the  land 
and  buildings  of  its  one  wholesale  and  ten  retail  markets. 
No  one  of  these,  however,  is  advantageously  located  with 
reference  to  transportation.     None  is  on  Baltimore's  extensive 

*  Appendix  2. 

*  A  list  of  cities  having  municipal  markets  appears  in  Appendix  3. 


112  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

and  useful  water  front.  All  goods  must  be  hauled  twice  to 
reach  the  consumer.  The  markets  are  run  at  a  loss,  but  are 
said  to  be  responsible  for  the  comparatively  low  cost  of  living  in 
Baltimore. 

The  bucket  may  go  too  often  to  the  well,  but  the  basket  does 
not  go  too  often  to  the  market. 

Cleveland  conducts  five  city  markets.  One  of  these  is  a 
farmers'  market  where  there  are  looo  stands  and  500  more  sell 
from  wagons.  Another  is  a  fish  market  on  a  pubUc  dock  where 
the  consumer  can  deal  directly  with  the  fishermen.  Retailers, 
as  well  as  private  consumers,  have  thus  enjoyed  a  reduction  of 
one-half  or  more  in  the  price  of  fish. 

The  latest  Cleveland  market  is  an  impressive,  fireproof  struc- 
ture with  an  ornate  tower.  The  building  is  235  feet  long  and 
136  feet  wide,  and  makes  provision  for  the  sale  of  all  kinds  of 
market  products.  The  unique  feature  of  this  market  is  a  munici- 
pal cold  storage  plant  where  the  consumer  may  keep  his  products 
and  withdraw  them  at  any  time  as  he  would  the  contents  of  a 
safety  deposit  vault.  Before  the  public  had  learned  to  use  the 
market,  dealers  had  appreciated  its  value,  storing  3000  barrels 
of  apples,  2000  cases  of  eggs,  175,000  pounds  of  cheese,  and 
other  perishable  goods  during  the  first  year.  The  public  re- 
frigerator is  invaluable  for  the  preservation  of  products  during 
the  three  days  of  the  week  that  the  market  is  not  open,  saving 
their  being  carted  about  the  dusty  streets  in  unsanitary  wagons 
or  being  kept  in  private  refrigerators  of  doubtful  cleanliness. 
The  public  is  learning  to  buy  goods  in  quantities  with  greater 
economy  and  to  store  them  in  their  common  refrigerator  for  use 
at  other  seasons.  Seven  rooms  are  now  chilled,  and  a  house- 
holder can  store  a  crate  of  thirty  dozen  eggs  or  a  barrel  of  apples 
for  six  months  or  more  for  forty  cents,  and  100  pounds  of  butter 
from  June  i  to  February  i  for  fifteen  cents.  The  deficit  shown 
by  the  public  refrigerator  the  first  year  was  inevitable. 

Cold  storage  has  a  new  meaning  when  the  consumer  knows 
the  combination  of  the  time  lock. 

Indianapohs  has  for  the  better  part  of  a  century  owned  the 
public  market,  now  housed  in  three  brick  buildings  in  the  heart 
of  the  city.  In  spite  of  its  popularity  its  methods  were  trans- 
formed by  former  Mayor  Shank,  who  attracted  national  atten- 
tion by  showing  how  to  serve  the  consumer  direct  through  whole- 


A.  E.  Chapman,  Official  Fly  Catcher. 
Redlands,  California. 


Cleveland  Municipal  Market  and  Cold  Storage  Plant. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  113 

sale  purchases.  He  sold  potatoes  to  the  consumer  at  lower 
rates  than  the  commission  dealers  were  paying  for  them,  demon- 
strating the  inadequacy  of  the  present  municipal  market  system. 
For  a  number  of  years  the  receipts  of  the  Indianapolis  market 
have  been  two  or  three  times  the  expenditures. 

The  ultimate  consumer  has  not  yet  delivered  his  ultimatum. 

New  Orleans  has  the  best  financial  returns  from  its  markets, 
but  that  is  because  it  leases  them.  The  receipts  of  nearly 
$200,000  represent  as  good  an  income  as  most  cities  make  for 
the  consumer,  but  not  the  sanitary  protection  that  such  exten- 
sive municipal  markets  ought  to  guarantee  the  citizen.  The 
city  has  a  virtual  monopoly  of  market  rights.  Its  net  profit 
of  nearly  $80,000  a  year  may  be  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  operat- 
ing all  of  its  markets,  as  it  does  four  of  them,  in  the  interest  of 
public  health. 

There  is  a  better  supervision  of  slaughter  houses  in  America 
as  sanitary  knowledge  becomes  more  widespread,  but  municipal 
abattoirs  are  only  reported  from  Paris  (Texas),  Montgomery, 
Nashville,  Dubuque,  Los  Angeles,  and  Grand  Forks  (North 
Dakota).  The  citizens  of  Grand  Forks  in  1913  voted  $12,000 
for  the  erection  of  a  model  municipal  slaughter  house  of  brick 
and  concrete. 

The  purchaser  cannot  have  too  intimate  a  knowledge  of  his 
food  supply. 

Rochester  Milk  Supply 

Rochester,  New  York,  leads  the  country  in  the  supervision 
of  its  milk  supply.^ 

One  hundred  thousand  quarts  of  milk  from  8000  cows  come 
daily  to  Rochester,  some  of  it  traveling  as  much  as  seventy 
miles.  The  first  systematic  attempt  to  improve  the  milk  of 
Rochester  was  made  in  1897,  when  the  population  was  about 
160,000.  Milk  inspection  was  extended  out  to  the  sources  of 
supply,  the  sanitary  inspectors  in  the  city  were  multiplied, 
bacteriologic  examinations  were  made  of  milk  from  the  wagons, 
and  summer  milk  stations  were  opened  in  charge  of  trained  nurses. 
The  bacterial  counts  and  the  names  of  the  milkmen  are  pub- 

1  Fourteen  of  the  67  largest  cities  in  the  United  States  require  milk  to  be  deliv- 
ered in  bottles.  Three  cities  —  Denver,  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  Fort  Wayne  — 
provide  that  the  milk  must  be  kept  below  50°  Fahrenheit  during  transportation. 


114  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

lished  monthly.  Rochester  grades  all  milk  —  A,  B,  C.  Grade 
C  milk  cannot  be  sold  in  the  city.  This  has  excluded  twenty- 
nine  milkmen.  The  milk  inspector  is  not  only  a  critic  :  he  is  a 
teacher  trying  to  show  the  dairyman  as  well  as  the  consumer  the 
advantages  of  scientific  methods.  Eight  hundred  farms  are 
inspected  from  two  to  five  times  annually  by  three  inspectors. 
One  result  of  this  inspection  is  shown  in  the  greatly  decreased 
death  rate  of  infants.  In  spite  of  the  growth  of  the  population, 
the  number  of  deaths  of  children  under  five  was  reduced  from 
nearly  10,000  in  the  period  1884-1897  to  fewer  than  7000  in 
the  period  1897-1909. 

"Where  the  white  hearse  goes  most  often  there  you  will  find  the  weakest 
place  in  your  municipal  housekeeping."     {Sherman  C.  Kingsley.) 

So  successful  has  been  the  inspection  of  milk  that  Rochester 
has  transformed  its  milk  stations  into  child  welfare  stations. 
The  first  municipal  milk  station  was  opened  in  1897.  By 
1899  the  improvement  had  been  great  enough  to  warrant  the 
cessation  of  pasteurizing  milk  because  there  was  an  abundance 
of  clean  milk.  In  1905  some  of  the  milk  stations  were  put 
in  the  schoolhouses.  In  191 1  all  of  them  were  in  public  or 
parochial  schools  and  called  "Child  Welfare  Stations."  In 
that  year,  the  selling  of  milk  was  abandoned  and  the  nurses 
gave  all  their  time  to  the  care  of  children  and  the  teaching  of 
mothers.  Child  welfare  stations  are  open  from  8  to  11  a.m. 
during  July  and  August,  after  which  hour  the  nurse  visits  the 
homes.  The  larger  schools  have  a  second  nurse  who  visits  all 
day.  The  work  is  done  by  school  nurses  because  they  are 
already  acquainted  with  the  children.  The  nurse  gathers  statis- 
tics, including  social  and  medical  facts  about  the  family. 

The  services  of  the  nurse  are  limited  to  her  professional  func- 
tion, but  she  directs  the  people  to  other  agencies  for  other 
needs.  In  a  dirty  home  where  the  mother  is  sick  the  nurse 
supervises  a  cleaning  woman  until  the  mother  is  well  enough  to 
be  held  responsible  for  her  household.  When  necessary  the 
Health  Bureau  screens  the  windows  as  well  as  cleans  the  house. 
Each  week  demonstrations  in  the  care  and  feeding  of  infants  are 
carried  on  at  every  welfare  station.  The  stations  sell  or  loan 
on  deposit  nursing  bottles  and  sell  also  nipples,  babies'  pillows 
and  even  refrigerators.     At  each  of  the  thirteen  child  welfare 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  Il5 

Stations  Little  Mothers'  classes  are  conducted.  One  hundred 
and  fourteen  such  classes  were  held  in  19 14.  The  number 
would  have  been  larger  but  for  the  instruction  that  had  been 
given  in  the  schools  during  the  year. 

Rochester  has  stopped  furnishing  milk  for  babes,  but  it  gives 
meat  to  growing  women. 

Infant  Welfare 

"Little  Mother  Leagues"  have  been  established  in  New  York, 
Kansas  City,  Cleveland  and  Milwaukee  to  instruct  the  school 
girls  as  to  the  care  of  babies.  In  New  York  City  20,000  girls 
from  12  to  14  years  of  age  were  enrolled  in  191 2  in  these  leagues. 
They  not  only  anticipate  motherhood,  but  assist  materially  in 
the  prevention  of  infant  mortality.  Nearly  500  of  these  organiza- 
tions existed  in  191 2.  Doctors  and  nurses  lecture  and  demon- 
strate on  such  subjects  as  breast  feeding,  hygiene  of  the  home 
(cleanliness,  ventilation,  etc.),  hygiene  of  the  infant  (including 
bathing,  dressing,  value  of  fresh  air,  infant  feeding,  with  methods 
of  milk  modification). 

Motherhood  is  being  taken  seriously. 

The  enormous  death  rate  of  little  children  has  at  last  become 
a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  The  tragedy  of  the  slaughter 
of  the  innocents  at  Bethlehem  is  obscured  by  the  steady  destruc- 
tion of  infant  life.  The  possibihty  of  coping  with  this  needless 
infanticide  is  shown  by  the  reduction  of  the  death  rate  of  children 
under  five  in  cities  while  it  is  rising  in  the  country.  Our  un- 
concern is  partly  due  to  lack  of  vital  statistics.  Doctor  George 
W.  Goler,  the  very  efficient  health  officer  of  Rochester,  estimates 
after  years  of  agitation  that  5500  registrations  means  6000  births. 

A  child  without  a  birth  certificate  may  be  handicapped  for 
life. 

Most  of  the  movements  for  the  care  of  child  life  have  been 
initiated  by  private  charity,  but  gradually  the  public  health  or 
similar  departments  of  cities  are  induced  to  cooperate.  In 
Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  a  private  visiting  nurses'  association 
established  a  milk  station  that  resulted  in  the  organization  of 
two  stations  by  the  city  in  191 2  with  provision  for  public  nurses. 
Nashville  operates  four  municipal  milk  stations  \\ath  a  nursing 
force  of  four,  who  make  baby-saving  work  their  chief  enterprise. 


Ii6  .\MERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

New  York  established  fifty- two  milk  stations  in  igii. 

In  order  not  to  encourage  bottle  feeding  by  the  establishment 
of  milk  stations,  the  cities  where  they  are  organized  generally 
devote  much  attention  to  expectant  mothers.  Instructions 
are  given  at  the  dispensaries.  Expectant  mothers  are  referred 
to  hospitals  for  confinement  or  furnished  physician,  nurse  or 
sterile  sheets,  and  the  families  are  followed  up  after  the  regis- 
tration of  the  baby.  The  nurses  of  Dayton  in  19 14  made  772 
prenatal  and  955  postnatal  calls.  Boston  has  ten  nurses  in 
the  division  of  child  hygiene  doing  prenatal  and  postnatal  work. 
Physicians  are  required  by  the  Massachusetts  law  to  report 
births  within  forty-eight  hours.^ 

The  maternal  instinct  is  expensive  for  chicks ;  it  is  too  ex- 
travagant for  babes. 

In  Los  Angeles  the  municipal  nurses  make  home  calls  during 
the  school  vacation,  reporting  to  the  milk  station  where  breast 
feeding  is  impossible.  Kansas  City  employed  six  nurses  and 
six  medical  school  inspectors  in  1913.  A  card  is  sent  to  the 
mother  of  each  baby  reported,  letting  her  know  that  the  health 
oflEice  is  interested  and  thus  securing  the  cooperation  of  the 
mother.  This  encourages  registration  and  the  most  important 
means  of  protecting  child  life  — •  nursing  at  the  breast. 

We  inspect  prospective  citizens  from  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa ;  why  not  those  that  come  from  Nowhere  ? 

School  Medical  Inspection 

Elmira  seems  to  have  been  the  first  American  city  to  take 
official  interest  in  the  welfare  of  its  school  children.  Medical 
inspection  was  introduced  into  the  pubHc  schools  of  Elmira  in 
1872.  Boston  inaugurated  a  system  of  medical  inspection  of 
school  children  in  1894  with  a  staff  of  fifty  school  physicians. 

>  The  Grand  Rapids  Clinic  for  Infant  Feeding  held  a  Baby  Week  in  April,  1915. 
Young  fathers,  as  well  as  young  mothers,  worked  diligently  to  raise  the  needed 
$6500  by  various  spectacular  methods.  A  hundred  milk  dealers  cooperated. 
Twenty  thousand  poster  stamps  were  sold  to  the  school  children  in  forty-one  schools. 
Pictures  and  notices  were  given  in  the  movies.  Collections  were  taken  in  milk 
bottles  at  all  public  meetings,  the  collection  at  the  prize  fight  being  twice  as  large  as 
that  secured  at  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  The  methods  adopted  were 
designed  not  only  to  raise  money,  but  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  all  the  citizens. 

It  was  felt,  as  a  result  of  the  agitation,  that  rir^nd  Rapids  had  foynd,  its  father- 
hood. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  I17 

A  series  of  epidemics  among  school  children  stirred  Boston  to 
this  initiative.  The  following  year  Chicago  introduced  the 
system,  and  New  York  followed  in  1897  with  a  corps  of  134 
medical  inspectors.  Philadelphia  came  in  the  next  year.'  In 
1906  Massachusetts  made  medical  inspection  in  the  schools 
compulsory  for  all  of  its  communities.  More  than  500  cities 
had  departments  of  medical  inspection  in  19 14. 

Medical  inspection  coincides  with  the  growth  of  community 
consciousness.     "  Ye  are  all  members  of  one  body." 

The  first  efforts  were  to  reduce  the  danger  of  contagion  among 
pupils.  In  the  beginning  medical  inspection  was  administered 
by  boards  of  health,  but  experience  has  led  to  the  transfer  of 
authority  to  the  board  of  education.  A  distinction  may  be 
made  between  the  natural  function  of  the  board  of  health  to 
protect  the  community  against  contagious  diseases  and  the 
physical  examinations  for  defects,  diseases  and  abnormalities 
that  involve  a  greater  supervision  than  is  usually  expected  of 
boards  of  health.  The  exclusion  of  children  with  contagious 
diseases  is  a  minor  fraction  of  the  work  of  medical  inspection. 
Such  exclusions  ranged,  for  instance,  from  i  per  cent  in  New 
York  City  to  8  per  cent  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1909-10, 
although  60  per  cent  of  the  school  children  suffer  from  some 
kind  of  defect. 

The  Russell  Sage  Foundation  in  1908  contended  that  about 
half  of  the  children  have  defective  teeth,  which  increases  the  time 
for  completing  eight  grades  half  a  year.  One  child  in  seven 
has  defective  breathing,  which  means  a  similar  loss  of  time  in 
finishing  the  elementary  schools.  One  child  in  four  has  hyper- 
trophied  tonsils  that  add  more  than  half  a  year  to  the  time  needed 
by  the  child  to  complete  his  course.  One  child  in  eight  has 
adenoids  and  they  compel  on  the  average  an  extra  year  of  work. 
Still  more  time  is  needed  by  children  with  enlarged  glands,  and 
nearly  half  of  the  children  have  them.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of 
the  defects  revealed  by  physical  examinations  are  those  of  teeth, 
throat,  eyes  and  nose. 

The  department  of  public  health  and  charities  in  Philadelphia 
has  established  a  division  of  ophthalmology  where  poor  children 
can  be  furnished  with  glasses  free.     If  2500  children  save  one 

*  See  Appendix  4  for  detailu  of  the  work  in  Philadelphia  and  Rochester. 


Il8  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

year  of  school  life  there  will  be  an  annual  saving  of  over  $87,000, 
not  counting  the  child's  time  and  its  increased  efficiency. 

Eleven  American  states  have  laws  providing  for  the  physical 
examination  of  school  children.  In  spite  of  this  showing  of  the 
importance  of  medical  inspection,  in  only  214  of  the  443  cities 
reporting  medical  inspection  in  191 1  is  a  complete  physical 
examination  conducted  by  the  school  physician.  In  New  York 
23  per  cent  of  the  cases  reported  are  treated.  Pasadena  im- 
proves upon  that  with  32  per  cent,  and  Summit,  New  Jersey, 
leads  with  47  per  cent.  After  all  of  this  inspection  has  been 
done,  few  cities  have  systems  of  records  that  serve  the  com- 
munity adequately.  Chicago  records  eight  annual  physical 
examinations  in  its  schools.  Pasadena  appends  the  testimony 
of  the  teacher  to  that  of  the  physician,  and  Berkeley  provides  a 
place  for  the  scholarship  records. 

The  average  child  is  given  a  new  lease  of  life  when  put  under 
the  supervision  of  some  one  more  scientific  than  his  parents. 

School  Nurses 

The  number  of  children  excluded  from  the  New  York  schools 
because  of  infectious  or  contagious  diseases  had  risen  so  alarm- 
ingly in  1902  that  Miss  Lilian  D.  Wald  was  able  to  persuade  the 
Board  of  Education  to  experiment  with  the  school  nurse.  The 
largest  cities  are  now  providing  nurses  in  connection  with 
medical  inspection.  They  are  able  to  take  care  of  minor  affec- 
tions without  the  aid  of  the  medical  inspector.  Originally 
medical  inspection  meant  the  exclusion  of  many  children  from 
school  and  the  carrying  of  contagion  into  the  home.  In  1908 
postal  cards  to  the  parents  resulted  in  6  per  cent  of  the  children 
being  treated.  School  nurses  raised  this  to  84  per  cent.  The 
treatment  of  minor  skin  and  eye  troubles  by  nurses  in  New 
York  City  reduced  the  number  of  children  excluded  from  school 
from  57,665  in  1903  to  3361  in  191 1.  In  addition,  thousands  of 
minor  cures  have  been  effected.  Boston  has  thirty-six  nurses; 
Chicago  has  one  hundred. 

The  school  nurse  in  Philadelphia  saves  nearly  five  days  in 
each  contagious  case.  This  means  nine  thousand  dollars 
saved  directly  by  the  educational  system. 

Oakland,  California,  instituted  health  inspection  in  the  schools 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  II9 

in  1909.  There  are  no  volunteers,  so  that  every  one  gives  full 
time  to  the  service,  which  is  conducted  by  a  medical  inspector 
and  seven  graduate  nurses.  The  work  is  so  organized  that  each 
nurse  may,  if  possible,  visit  the  same  schools  in  successive 
years.  Each  school  is  visited  fortnightly.  Once  a  year  each 
child  receives  a  systematic  examination  and  the  results  are 
recorded.  If  the  parents  do  not  respond  to  the  notices  sent 
them,  the  nurse  visits  the  home.  While  the  nurses  have  not 
the  training  of  physicians,  they  make  possible  more  intimate 
examinations  than  can  be  expected  of  medical  experts.  Of 
17,000  pupils  in  1911-12  some  attention  was  needed  by  70  per 
cent.  Two-thirds  of  these  were  still  in  the  schools  the  following 
year,  half  of  whom  had  received  beneficial  treatment.  Five 
hundred  cases  were  merely  influenced  to  better  methods  of  living. 
Minneapolis  combines  the  work  of  medical  inspection  and 
physical  education.  Including  nurses  and  inspectors,  there  is  a 
staff  of  nearly  sixty.  The  schools  for  stammerers,  mentally 
retarded  and  deficient,  the  open  air  schools,  the  school  gardens 
and  the  truant  schools  are  under  the  general  supervision  of 
the  Health  Department. 

Dental  Clinics 

Medical  inspection  has  led  to  emphasis  on  dental  clinics, 
partly  because  health  is  so  dependent  on  teeth  and  partly  because 
of  the  expense  of  dentistry.  The  work  has  commonly  been 
inaugurated  by  dental  associations.  They  frequently  continue 
to  cooperate  with  the  school  authorities,  but  the  tendency  is  to 
municipalize  the  service.  Rochester,  that  claims  to  have  es- 
tabUshed  the  first  dental  clinic  in  the  world  a  quarter  of  a  century 
ago,  estabUshed  the  first  American  school  dental  clinic  in  1905. 
The  private  philanthropy  of  the  Public  Health  Association 
initiated  this  work.  A  lecture  campaign  was  conducted  for 
a  fortnight  in  October,  1910.  There  are  now  three  school 
dental  dispensaries  where  in  191 2  over  two  thousand  patients 
were  treated  at  a  cost  of  $1.12  for  each  child. 

Rochester,  New  York,  leads  in  pubHc  health  progress,  as 
Rochester,  Minnesota,  does  in  private  surgery. 

Chicago  has  taken  over  the  work  inaugurated  by  private 
funds.     Ten  dental  dispensaries  and  eleven  dentists  were  pro- 


I20  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

vided  for  in  the  Health  Department  appropriation  for  the  year 
1914.  Over  26,000  children  were  examined  in  1913  and  the 
dispensaries  accounted  for  18,000  fillings,  14,000  extractions, 
and  27,000  treatments.  New  York  City  has  six  dental  cHnics 
in  addition  to  the  fourteen  connected  with  general  dispensaries 
or  dental  colleges.  Only  children  between  six  and  eight  years  of 
age  can  be  treated.  The  Board  of  Health  supplied  nine  nurses 
to  assist  the  nine  dentists  in  1914.  So  small  a  city  as  Bridge- 
port has  appropriated  $5000  to  provide  not  only  for  a  dental 
clinic,  but  for  the  monthly  supervision  of  children's  teeth  by 
the  dental  nurse. 

A  free  dental  infirmary  has  been  established  in  Boston  in  a 
perfectly  equipped  building.  The  Forsyth  Dental  Infirmary 
for  Children  ministers  to  the  230,000  children  in  Boston  and  its 
suburbs.  A  two  million  dollar  endowment  supports  a  private 
philanthropy  that  cooperates  with  the  municipal  authorities. 
The  purpose  is  to  care  for  all  children  under  16  years  of  age. 
The  Division  of  Child  Hygiene  of  the  Boston  Board  of  Health 
examined  the  children  of  the  Boston  pubUc  schools  in  19 14 
and  found  only  forty  thousand  out  of  118,781  without  defects. ^ 
A  few  months  after  it  was  opened  the  Forsyth  Infirmary  was 
caring  for  300  children  a  day.  Its  work  is  not  limited  to 
dentistry  but  covers  the  whole  field  of  oral  hygiene.  A  research 
fellowship  has  been  established;  the  building  includes  a 
museum ;  its  hygienic  precautions  may  be  measured  by  the 
sterihzing  of  45,000  instruments  daily,  and  the  substitution  of 
fresh  linen  for  the  outer  clothing  of  patients  and  staff  in  the 
operating  room.^ 

Dr.  William  Osier  is  quoted  as  saying,  "  If  I  were  asked  to  say 
whether  more  physical  deterioration  was  produced  by  alcohol 
or  by  defective  teeth,  I  should  say  unhesitatingly,  defective 
teeth." 

Municipal  Hospitals 

Many  cities  have  municipal  hospitals  now  in  addition  to  the 
private  endowments.     Small  cities   like   Ithaca   and   Yonkers, 

»  A  total  of  100,000  defects  included :  defective  nasal  breathing,  0693 ;  hyper- 
trophied  tonsils,  25,121;  defective  teeth,  51.340;  defective  palate,  371;  cervical 
glands,  13,711. 

2  Dental  clinics  strictly  under  the  board  of  education  are  now  conducted  in  Roch- 
ester, Cincinnati,  Muskegon,  Philadelphia  and  Elmira. 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  I2I 

New  York,  are  equipped  with  architecturally  beautiful  and 
scientifically  well  appointed  municipal  hospitals.  Kansas  City 
has  a  hospital  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  Union  Station,  the  main 
part  of  the  city,  and  the  Kaw  and  Missouri  River  valleys.  The 
Louisville  municipal  hospital  consists  of  eleven  buildings  occupy- 
ing five  acres  in  the  heart  of  the  city  with  separate  i)rovision 
for  white  and  colored  people. 

Private  hospital  provision  is  too  precarious  for  the  poor. 

The  most  ambitious  municipal  equipment  in  the  country 
is  that  of  Cincinnati.  In  the  first  place  the  new  hospital  is 
connected  with  the  medical  school  of  Cincinnati  University, 
itself  a  municipal  institution.  The  hospital  may  be  stretched 
to  the  accommodation  of  1500  patients.  It  is  situated  on  a 
27-acre  plot,  fortunately  adjoining  another  city-owned  tract 
of  38  acres,  where  day  camps  for  weak  and  sick  children  and 
adults  will  be  established.  The  hospital  is  a  center  not  only  for 
patients,  but  for  medical  education.  It  is  provided  with  a  large 
amphitheater  and  laboratories  to  facilitate  scientific  investiga- 
tions. "  Observation  wards"  are  to  be  conducted  as  an  incentive 
to  preventive  medicine.  Patients  will  be  kept  there  until  a 
definite  diagnosis  is  reached.  There  are  twenty-five  completed 
buildings,  but  twelve  more  may  be  accommodated  on  the  tract. 
The  buildings  include  a  group  for  contagious  diseases.  AU 
the  structures  are  as  nearly  fireproof  as  possible.  The  founda- 
tions are  of  concrete,  waterproofed  and  underdrained.  The 
hospital  wastes  are  to  be  disposed  of  according  to  the  latest 
dictates  of  science.  Each  ward  kitchen  includes  an  incinerator, 
while  the  power  house  takes  care  of  the  bulky  v/aste  in  its  large 
crematory.  Cincinnati  has  also  built  a  tuberculosis  sanatorium 
beyond  the  city  limits.  It  has  a  capacity  of  five  hundred  beds. 
Three  hundred  of  the  thousand  patients  discharged  in  three  years 
were  found  to  be  earning  a  total  of  $600  a  day,  or  $219,000  a 
year.  This  does  not  touch  the  gain  that  comes  from  preventing 
infection  in  the  family  by  the  segregation  of  patients. 

The  sporadic  character  of  American  municipal  progress  is 
shown  by  the  superior  hospital  and  school  provision  of  so  badly 
governed  a  city  as  Cincinnati. 


122  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Tuberculosis  Hospitals 

The  history  of  the  anti-tuberculosis  agitation  in  Cleveland  is 
a  hopeful  indication  of  the  way  voluntary  agencies  take  the  first 
initiative  and  then,  as  public  sentiment  grows,  the  movement  is 
socialized.  In  sk  years'  time  the  agitation  had  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  a  Bureau  of  Tuberculosis  in  the  Health  De- 
partment. Two  dispensaries  were  added  to  the  private  equip- 
ment and  fourteen  visiting  nurses  were  employed.  The  bureau 
is  supported  by  an  annual  appropriation  of  $39,000.  Then  a 
sanatorium  was  erected,  costing  $36,000  a  year,  and  a  hospital 
for  advanced  cases,  costing  still  more.  In  1914  the  Bureau  of 
Tuberculosis  was  responsible  for  six  dispensaries,  six  physicians, 
twenty-six  nurses  and  a  day  camp.  The  School  Board  was 
operating  eight  open  air  schools.  A  new  sanatorium  cost 
$138,000  a  year,  while  the  hospital  for  advanced  cases  de- 
manded $55,000  annually  for  its  support.  The  hospital  service 
is  now  furnished  at  Warrensville,  in  connection  with  the  Cooley 
Farms,  so  that  the  administration  is  exceptional. 

A  city  that  is  wilhng  to  make  such  expenditures  cannot  fail 
to  seek  the  sources  of  the  disease. 

The  Chicago  Municipal  Tuberculosis  Sanitarium  was  au- 
thorized when  the  Illinois  legislature  provided  in  1909  a  special 
municipal  one-mill  sanitarium  tax  for  any  city  that  adopted  it 
by  referendum.  The  voters  indorsed  this  plan  four  to  one. 
The  sanatorium  maintains  ten  dispensaries  with  a  staff  of  thirty- 
five  physicians  and  fifty  field  nurses.  The  purpose  of  the  sana- 
torium is  not  to  house  all  the  patients,  but  to  encourage  them  to 
be  cared  for  at  home.  A  Bureau  of  Special  Rehef  assists  in 
"remodeling  and  building  inexpensive  sleeping  porches,  supply- 
ing the  necessary  equipment  for  outdoor  sleeping,  such  as  beds, 
bed  clothing,  reclining  chairs,  canvas  curtains."  The  law 
specifically  says  that  it  confers  power  ''to  stamp  out  tuberculosis 
in  such  city."  The  sanatorium  itself  is  situated  on  a  i6o-acre 
tract  in  the  northwest  section  of  the  city.  It  is  designed  to 
duplicate  the  beds  now  furnished  by  private  philanthropy. 
Among  its  departments  are  a  maternity  section  and  a  nursery 
for  infants  of  tuberculous  mothers. 

In  1905  Chicago  had  200  beds  for  advanced  cases  of  tubercu- 
losis, of  which  150  were  in  the  poorhouse.  In  191 5  this  number 
had  increased  tenfold. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  1 23 

New  York  with  40,000  consumptives  was  equipped  with 
3000  pubUc  and  private  beds  in  1914.  Eleven  thousand  different 
patients  were  admitted  to  the  tuberculosis  hospitals  in  1913. 
About  one-half  of  the  applicants  had  to  wait  for  admission  until 
some  one  died  or  was  discharged.  The  hallways  of  the  Metro- 
politan Hospital  were  lined  with  double  rows  of  beds.  In  con- 
sequence of  an  awakening  to  its  deficiency,  New  York  built  the 
Sea  View  Hospital  on  Staten  Island  to  accommodate  1000  surgi- 
cal tuberculosis  patients  and  made  provdsion  for  more  than 
one  hundred  in  each  of  three  other  hospitals.  During  the 
summer  of  191 1  stereopticon  lectures  were  given  in  the  parks 
under  the  Department  of  Health.  Sixteen  lectures  were  given 
to  an  average  attendance  of  2000.  In  191 2  motion  pictures  were 
substituted  for  lantern  slides,  with  an  attendance  of  5000.  In 
191 2  the  Department  of  Health  opened  eight  special  children's 
clinics,  thus  increasing  the  number  to  thirteen.  The  clinics 
reported  that  10,000  children  were  living  in  tuberculous  families. 

The  new  type  of  New  York  tenement  does  more  than  all  the 
movies  to  combat  tuberculosis. 

Boston's  achievement  thus  far  is  in  undertaking  comprehen- 
sive municipal  control  with  the  purpose  of  eradicating  the 
disease.  An  educational  campaign  has  been  carried  on ;  bulle- 
tins and  posters  have  been  issued.  In  1906  a  Consumptives' 
Hospital  Department  was  created  by  the  City  Council.  A 
58-acre  tract  of  land  has  been  bought  in  Mattapan  for  the  erec- 
tion of  the  municipal  hospital  for  consumptives.  The  estate  is 
within  the  city  limits  on  a  trolley  line.  The  plan  involves  six 
ward  buildings,  administration,  dormitory  and  scientific  build- 
ings. The  work  was  carried  on  at  first  in  two  ward  pavilions, 
a  day  camp  and  a  cottage  ward.  Each  ward  building  of 
fifty-eight  beds  cost  about  $62,000.  They  are  for  the  care  of  the 
advanced  stages  of  consumption.  It  is  expected  that  all  the 
destitute  will  be  provided  for. 

The  sanatorium  day  camp  is  an  economical  method  of  caring 
for  people  whose  situation  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  spend 
their  nights  at  home.  The  building  for  this  camp  is  one  story 
high,  150  feet  long,  and  36  feet  wide,  with  a  porch  16  feet  wide. 
It  is  sheltered  by  rocks  and  trees  on  the  north.  The  out- 
patient department  attempts  to  bring  to  the  clinic  all  members 
of  the  family  of  a  tuberculous  patient.     The  hospital  attempts 


124  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

to  reach  the  entire  community  by  cooperation  with  the  Board  of 
Health,  inspecting  and  registering  all  cases  of  tuberculosis, 
furnisliing  obligatory  free  disinfection  after  the  death  or  removal 
of  a  consumptive,  conducting  a  bacteriological  laboratory 
and  inspecting  schools  and  school  children  by  a  staff  of  eighty 
physicians  and  twenty  school  nurses. 

A  Massachusetts  law  requires  every  city  and  town  of  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants  to  establish  and  maintain  a  tuberculosis 
dispensary  satisfactory  to  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

The  Buffalo  Hospital  has  a  remarkable  adjunct  in  the  J.  N. 
Adam  Memorial  Hospital  for  the  treatment  of  incipient  tubercu- 
losis. It  is  located  at  Perrysburg  overlooking  the  Cattaraugus 
Valley,  Lake  Erie  and  the  Canadian  shore.  The  equipment 
consists  of  two  pavilions  for  children  and  a  building  for  em- 
ployees. Each  of  the  paviUons  will  accommodate  60  children; 
one  pavilion  is  for  tuberculosis  of  the  bones  and  joints  and  the 
other  for  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs.  Dr.  John  H.  Pryor  has  here 
inaugurated  the  sun  cure  for  Buffalo  tuberculous  children. 
The  beautiful  grounds  enable  the  children  to  spend  the  day  in 
the  open.  The  treatment  involves  exposure  of  the  body  to 
the  sun  for  from  four  to  six  hours  a  day. 

These  children  of  Nature  go  tobogganing  clad  only  in  a  loin 
cloth. 

Hospitals  for  Infectious  Diseases 

A  new  contagious  disease  hospital  in  Chicago  has  been  pro- 
vided for  by  bond  issues  amounting  to  $550,000.  The  $300,000 
now  available  will  provide  for  one  ward  building  containing 
132  beds  and  for  the  administration  building.  A  second  build- 
ing with  similar  accommodations  will  be  built  with  the  $250,000 
issue.  The  hospital  when  completed  will  consist  of  an  adminis- 
tration building,  five  ward  buildings,  nurses'  building,  superin- 
tendent's residence,  kitchen  and  dining  pavilion,  ambulance 
garage  and  morgue,  involving  a  total  cost  of  well  over  $1,000,000. 

Many  cities  have  compelled  infectious  cases  to  make  vain 
pilgrimages  from  hospital  to  hospital. 

When  a  smallpox  epidemic  struck  Rochester  in  1902-1903 
they  were  unable  to  house  the  patients.  In  consequence  of 
this  scare,  an  80-bed  hospital  was  erected.  By  this  time  small- 
pox had  disappeared.     The  hospital  consists  of  a  central  ad- 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  1 25 

ministration  building  and  four  i8-bed,  one-story  wards,  the 
superintendent's  house,  nurses'  quarters,  recreation  building, 
kitchen  and  laundry.  Two  pavilions  of  twelve  and  six  rooms 
respectively  with  accompanying  conveniences  were  set  aside 
for  smallpox.  These  have  been  now  devoted  to  infectious 
diseases  —  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  whooping  cough, 
typhoid  —  as  the  city  is  free  from  smallpox  through  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  school  vaccination  law  and  the  refusal  of  large  em- 
ployers to  employ  unvaccinated  people.  With  enrollment  of 
forty  patients  it  has  not  been  found  necessary  to  use  disin- 
fectants. The  precautions  taken  are  summed  up  in  cleanliness  — 
careful  washing  of  the  hands  with  soap  and  water,  drying  with 
paper  towels,  and  a  separate  gown  for  each  disease.  In  treating 
seven  hundred  patients  there  has  been  less  than  2  per  cent  of 
cross  infection.  The  highest  efficiency  is  thus  secured,  while 
the  four  nurses  enjoy  an  eight-hour  day. 

The  hospital  is  for  those  who  cannot  pay.  The  average 
annual  income  from  patients  does  not  equal  $500. 

Swat  the  Fly  ! 

America  has  at  last  awakened  to  the  pest  of  the  fly.  It  has 
discovered  that  flies  are  more  dangerous  to  civilized  man  than 
all  the  wild  beasts  in  the  world.  Americans  read  with  pride 
that  the  army  has  made  Manila  a  flyless  city ;  some  citizens  of 
continental  American  cities  are  endeavoring  to  rival  the  success 
of  our  army  in  the  Orient.  A  campaign  of  education  has  been 
carried  on  in  many  American  communities  during  the  last  few 
years  and  a  successful  endeavor  to  cope  with  flies  has  begun  in  a 
few  of  them. 

The  achievement  of  Cleveland  inspired  over  one  hundred 
towns  to  write  to  the  authorities  for  information.  The  Board 
of  Health  of  Cleveland,  with  the  support  of  Mayor  Baker,  in- 
augurated a  campaign,  organizing  the  children  of  the  sixth, 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the  public  schools.  The  schools 
were  used  as  distributing  centers  for  literature.  The  campaign 
was  initiated  by  Doctor  Jean  Dawson,  a  professor  in  the  Cleve- 
land Normal  Training  School  for  Girls.  She  has  organized  the 
boys  into  Junior  Sanitary  Police  and  the  girls  into  Sanitary 
Aides.     The  boys  inspect  back  yards  and  inform  householders 


126  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

of  the  conditions  of  their  garbage  cans  and  other  Ifly-breeding 
places.  If  there  is  no  response,  the  boy  refers  to  his  senior  officer. 
Unless  results  are  achieved  by  this  friendly  method,  the  Street 
Cleaning  Department  may  be  invoked  to  supplement  the  work 
of  the  boys.  The  girls,  working  in  pairs,  have  inspected  stores 
and  counted  the  number  of  flies  visible  in  three  minutes.  The 
city  seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  aroused  and  the  new  sanitary 
code  pro\ddes  for  the  removal  of  all  fly-breeding  refuse  every 
seventy-two  hours.  In  the  interim  it  must  be  inclosed  in  insect- 
proof  receptacles.  The  great  achievement  of  Cleveland  is  in 
arousing  the  entire  population  to  the  significance  of  the  early  fly. 

A  fly  in  the  hand  in  March  is  worth  two  thousand  in  the 
kitchen  in  August. 

Before  this  the  city  of  Wilmington,  Delaware,  had  achieved 
distinct  success  in  a  campaign  conducted  by  Dr.  Charles  T. 
Nesbitt,  Health  Ofiicer,  a  campaign  carried  on  entirely  at  public 
expense.  The  close  connection  between  the  annual  epidemic  of 
typhoid  and  the  first  spring  flies  led  to  an  attack  on  the  breeding 
places  of  the  vermin.  It  was  decided  to  disinfect  the  entire  town 
with  a  by-product  of  the  distillation  of  turpentine.  Between 
June  8  and  July  17  the  entire  city  had  been  sprinkled  four  times 
with  this  pyroligneous  acid.  Beginning  with  one  case  of  typhoid 
reported  on  June  i,  the  maximum  of  ten  cases  reported  in  a  single 
day  was  reached  June  15.  After  the  second  disinfection  the 
number  of  new  cases  steadily  diminished  until  only  five  cases 
all  told  appeared  after  July  10,  although  the  fourth  disinfection 
had  not  then  begun. 

The  campaign  of  education  in  Rochester,  New  York,  began  in 
May.  The  life  history  of  the  fly  was  shown  from  its  breeding 
places  in  manure  and  filth  to  its  fatal  cUmax.  It  was  shown  that 
the  15,000  horses  encumbered  the  city  with  manure  that  would 
make  a  pile  covering  an  acre  of  ground  175  feet  high.  This 
alone  would  account  for  16  thousand  million  flies.  The  Health 
Bureau  secured  10,000  fly  swatters  and  a  large  number  of  fly 
traps.  With  the  aid  of  private  philanthropy  prizes  were  offered 
for  the  destruction  of  flies  on  Saturday,  June  14,  and  thus  a 
spectacular  campaign  was  inaugurated  with  the  aid  of  the 
children. 

"Knee  deep  in  June"  may  be  hygienic  as  well  as  poetic. 

The  range  of  successful  agitation  against  the  fly  extends  already 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  127 

from  Ihe  Atlantic  Coast  to  the  Pacific  and  from  the  Great  Lakes 
to  southern  Texas.  Blue  Earth,  Minnesota,  and  Pokomoke, 
Maryland,  may  serve  as  examples  of  small  communities  in  which 
the  screening  of  business  places  and  the  setting  of  large  traps 
at  the  curbs  have  almost  completely  rid  the  community  of  flies. 
Redlands,  California,  appointed  an  official  flycatcher.  He 
supervised  five  hundred  fly  traps  in  1914.  Fifty  gallons  of 
dead  flies  a  month  were  taken  from  the  hundred  traps  in  the 
business  district. 

A  movement  may  be  national  in  scope  and  still  local  in  ex- 
pression. 

Mosquitoes 

Similar  campaigns  are  being  waged  against  mosquitoes.  The 
breeding  places  are  sought  out  and  thus  a  more  effectual  method 
than  swatting  is  employed.  Essex  County,  New  Jersey,  which 
includes  populous  New  York  suburbs  and  the  big  city  of  Newark, 
spent  $65,000  in  1913  in  the  war  against  mosquitoes.  It  was 
necessary  to  destroy  the  breeding  places  in  both  salt  marshes  and 
fresh  ponds.  One  inspector  with  nine  laborers  spent  all  the 
summer  in  ditching  and  draining  marshes.  The  city  of  Newark 
and  the  state  of  New  Jersey  had  already  cut  900,000  feet  of 
ditches  before  the  mosquito  campaign  began.  The  Mosquito 
Extermination  Commission  cut  250,000  feet  in  191 2  and  350,000 
in  1913. 

One  encouraging  result  of  draining  salt  marshes  is  that  two 
crops  of  hay  are  produced  each  season  instead  of  one. 

The  fight  against  fresh-water  mosquitoes  was  carried  out  by 
oiling  sewer  catch  basins,  removing  rubbish  about  all  private 
premises,  and  oiling  receptacles  that  might  prove  breeding  places. 
Inspectors  covered  their  entire  territory  every  ten  days  in  hot 
weather  and  every  fifteen  days  in  cooler  weather,  assisted  by  a 
force  of  laborers  who  buried  cans,  opened  ditches,  and  filled  holes, 
endeavoring  to  drain  all  standing  water.  In  19 13  over  1000 
cisterns,  7000  catch  basins,  500  cellars,  4000  pools  and  swamps 
and  300  brooks  w^ere  inspected.  Over  half  a  million  visits  were 
made  to  private  premises.  Meadows  and  pools  have  been 
filled  with  refuse  from  the  Jersey  suburbs  and  New  York. 
Refuse  from  the  metropolis  was  spread  over  sixty  acres  of 
breeding  territory  in  191 2. 


128  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Baltimore's  campaign  of  191 5  was  inaugurated  and  directed 
by  General  Gorgas, 

In  the  fall  of  19 12  the  Board  of  Health  of  Greenwich,  Connecti- 
cut, admitted  that  there  had  been  600  cases  of  malaria  which 
the  physicians  thought  50  per  cent  short  of  the  truth.  It  was 
ditRcult  to  agitate  because  of  the  fear  that  the  reputation  of  the 
town  might  be  injured.  Nevertheless,  public-spirited  people 
did  organize  a  Health  Association.  The  Health  Department  was 
reorganized  and  $23,000  spent  in  inspecting,  ditching,  draining 
and  oiling  a  territory  about  one  and  one-half  miles  square  in  a 
township  seven  by  nine  miles  in  size.  The  work  was  begun  late 
in  the  summer  of  19 13.  Yet  only  200  cases  of  malaria  were 
reported  that  summer.  In  1914  only  30  cases  were  reported, 
and  it  was  claimed  that  two-thirds  of  these  were  hold-overs. 

The  mosquito  may  not  have  been  annihilated,  but  "  she " 
has  been  subdued  in  Greenwich. 

Philadelphia  began  its  mosquito  campaign  by  an  extensive 
propaganda,  especially  in  the  schools.  In  the  spring  of  1913 
twenty  illustrated  lectures  in  the  life  history  of  mosquitoes  were 
given  by  the  city  entomologist  in  churches,  schools,  libraries 
and  lodge  rooms.  The  public  school  teachers  were  persuaded 
to  talk  to  the  children  on  the  subject.  One  hundred  thousand 
pamphlets  were  distributed  among  school  children  and  100,000 
more  to  householders.  Then  followed  the  treatment  of  pools 
and  sewer  inlets,  the  greatest  attention  being  given  to  the  low- 
lying  area  in  South  Philadelphia.  This  land  is  so  low  that 
dykes  are  necessary  to  keep  out  the  river  water.  Ditches  must 
be  operated  with  sluices  to  meet  the  variation  of  high  and  low 
tide.  Forty-four  acres  were  drained  in  19 13  and  seventy-five 
in  1914,  involving  the  cutting  and  cleansing  of  sixty  miles  of 
ditches. 

A  practice  was  followed,  that  is  now  becoming  general,  of 
eUminating  undesirable  ponds  instead  of  merely  oiling  theni. 
By  dynamiting  the  hard  bottom  of  many  of  the  ponds  it  is 
possible  to  pierce  the  hardpan  so  that  the  water  sinks  through 
to  the  porous  ground  below.  In  time  the  area  is  completely 
drained. 

San  Antonio  has  erected  a  large  municipal  bat  roost  to  harbor 
this  effective  foe  of  the  mosquito. 


MosQtJiTO  Breeding  Pond  Before  Blasting. 
Philadelphia. 


Courtesy  of  the  DepartmeM  of  I'll'!  iL  ii.n!:':  ■md  (■fmriiits.  PhUatlclpHVi. 

After  Blasting  —  Water  Has  Entirely  Disappeared. 

Philadelphia. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH  1 29 


Starve  the  Rat  ! 


A  war  on  rats  has  been  waged  in  American  cities,  partly  be- 
cause cases  of  the  bubonic  plague  have  been  brought  in  by  Pacific 
steamships  and  partly  because  it  is  feared  that  the  opening  of 
the  Panama  Canal  may  have  increased  the  danger.  It  would 
be  worth  while  to  destroy  rats  because  of  their  menace  to  property 
—  it  is  claimed  that  they  dispose  of  $90,000,000  worth  of  goods 
in  the  United  States  annually  —  but  it  is  imperative  to  eliminate 
them  if  we  are  menaced  by  plague.  San  Francisco  has  spent 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  in  protecting  itself  against 
rats.  Even  squirrels  are  being  pursued  in  California  because 
they  have  been  infected  by  rat  fleas,  which  are  the  carriers  of 
the  germs  of  the  disease. 

New  Orleans  is  said  to  have  spent  $25,000  a  week  during 
quarantine. 

Philadelphia  has  carried  on  a  campaign  against  rats,  offering  a 
bounty  of  two  cents  for  a  dead  rat  and  five  cents  for  a  live  rat. 
The  Health  Department  was  enlarged  in  the  summer  of  19 14 
by  the  addition  of  a  chief  inspector,  six  inspectors,  a  bacteriolo- 
gist, and  subordinates  for  the  patrol  of  the  river  section  of  the 
city.  Every  building  has  been  inspected  and  many  old  ones 
have  already  been  rat-proofed.  Each  vessel  is  compelled  to 
use  a  rat  guard  if  it  comes  from  an  infected  port.  A  rat  receiving 
station  was  opened  at  the  Race  Street  Pier,  where  over  5000 
domestic  and  238  imported  rats  had  been  received  up  to  January 
I,  19 1 5.  This  campaign  has  also  been  waged  through  propa- 
ganda, distributing  literature  and  giving  'lectures,  showing  the 
methods  of  reproduction  and  destruction.^ 

The  New  York  Commissioner  of  Health  picturesquely  says, 
"Public  health  is  purchasable." 

1  Appendix  5. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PROTECTION 

The  traditional  purpose  of  American  government  is  the  pro- 
tection of  life  and  property.  The  protection  of  property  has 
been  considered  so  much  more  important  than  the  saving  of 
life  that  the  organization  of  pubUc  health  bureaus  has  lagged 
behind  fire  and  police  departments.  The  property  instinct  is 
so  deep  rooted  in  the  American  people  that  the  fire  department 
is  generally  the  best  organized  division  of  municipal  government. 
American  cities,  in  fact,  have  the  best  fire  departments  in  the 
world.  Yet  the  same  property  instinct  that  demands  efficient 
fire  protection  permits  the  erection  of  buildings  that  necessitate 
these  superior  fire  departments.  Europe  spends  about  twenty 
cents  per  capita  for  fire  protection,  while  the  United  States 
spends  $1.55.  In  spite  of  this  discrepancy  the  per  capita  fire 
loss  in  Europe  is  thirty  cents  a  year  and  in  the  United  States 
about  three  dollars. 

American  fires,  like  European  armies,  relieve  the  problem  of 
the  unemployed  by  making  needless  work. 

The  chief  agents  for  efficiency  in  the  fire  service  in  American 
cities  are  superior  apparatus,  superior  organization  of  the  de- 
partment, a  superior  water  system,  the  assessment  of  damages 
where  they  belong,  better  building  laws  and  fire  prevention 
propaganda.  The  noteworthy  improvements  in  fire  apparatus 
are  in  the  substitution  of  motor  for  horse-drawn  vehicles,  in 
automatic  fire-protection  and  fire-alarm  devices,  and  in  fire 
boats.  The  value  of  fire  apparatus  is  determined  largely  by  the 
speed  with  which  it  reaches  the  fire.  In  this  respect  the  horse  is 
unable  to  compete  with  the  motor  vehicle.  In  some  cities  horses 
are  kept  in  reserve,  chiefly  for  use  in  snowstorms.  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  seems  to  lead  the  country  in  its  motor  equipnient. 
In  1914  with  a  population  of  90,000  its  department  had  thirty- 

130 


PROTECTION  131 

two  pieces  of  motor-propelled  lire  apparatus.'  The  cost  of 
maintenance  of  the  motor  vehicles  of  Springfield  is  one-third  of 
what  it  was  for  horse-drawn  vehicles,  although  the  number  of 
fire  alarms  has  increased.  The  motor  fire  engines  have  an  addi- 
tional advantage  over  the  old  kind  ;  the  gasoline  engine,  having 
already  generated  its  power,  is  ready  for  service  at  the  fire  by 
switching  the  motor  from  the  propeUing  machinery  to  the 
pump.  The  only  drawback  to  the  speedy  introduction  of  motor 
vehicles  is  the  previous  investment  in  the  older  types.  This  loss 
is  being  partly  overcome  by  reconstruction  of  the  equipment. 
The  motor  vehicle  is  invaluable  also  for  the  fire  commissioners 
and  chiefs.  Boston  has  already  standardized  its  cars  so  that 
the  fire  department  had  in  1914  twenty-seven  uniform  cars, 
one  for  the  commissioner,  one  for  the  chief,  and  one  for  each 
district  chief. 

It  is  estimated  that  over  $10,000,000  is  invested  in  over  2000 
motor  vehicles  by  more  than  800  cities. 

Automatic  sprinklers  are  included  in  the  construction  of  the 
best  fire-proof  buildings  to-day  and  in  many  of  the  high  class 
theaters.  It  is  possible  in  this  way  to  drop  an  apron  of  water 
over  the  front  of  a  building  or  the  stage  of  a  theater.  Big  stores 
and  office  buildings  also  have  devices  in  the  ceilings  whereby 
a  sheet  of  water  is  set  free  automatically  by  a  sufficient  rise  of 
temperature. 

It  is  hard  to  keep  warm  under  damp  sheets. 

Cities  on  waterways  employ  fire  boats  in  order  to  get  a  power- 
ful stream  of  water  by  using  a  less  costly  source  of  supply, 
pumping  it  by  engines,  the  latest  of  which  is  equivalent  to  twenty 
city  fire  engines.  The  fire  boats  not  only  protect  docks  and 
shipping,  but  are  able  to  reach  fires  within  a  block  or  two  of  the 
water.  The  fire  boat  can  send  out  two  or  three  large  streams 
and  fifteen  or  twenty  small  ones.  The  newest  have  metal  masts 
like  battleships,  from  which  streams  may  be  directed.  New 
York  is  equipping  its  eleven  fire  boats  with  wireless  telegraph, 
by  which  they  can  be  recalled,  or  may  be  summoned  to  assist 
an  incoming  vessel.  The  use  of  the  cheaper  water  supply  is 
extended  in  some  cities  by  having  the  fire  boat  pump  water 
through  downtown  mains.    All  the  large  cities  on  the  Great 

'  See  Appendix  i. 


132  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Lakes  have  developed  such  pipe-line  systems.  In  Boston  a  pipe 
line  runs  from  one  side  of  the  city  to  the  other,  permitting  fire- 
boat  service  from  either  water  front. 

There  is  a  friendly  rivalry  among  American  municipalities 
to  extinguish  superfluous  conflagrations.  Fire  apparatus  is 
often  sent  from  one  city  to  another  in  the  case  of  great  fires. 

Fire  Departments 

The  job  of  fireman  has  always  been  an  exacting  one,  like  that 
of  the  soldier.  It  is  composed  of  nine  parts  of  idleness  and  one 
of  heroism.  It  has  been  found  difiicult  sometimes  to  keep  the 
fireman  amused  and  happy.  In  consequence  there  is  a  tendency 
to  demand  a  two-platoon  system  so  that  each  fireman  need  be 
on  duty  only  half  of  the  twenty-four  hours  instead  of  forty- 
eight  hours  in  succession,  as  in  the  liberal  Chicago  single  platoon 
system.  The  two-platoon  system  is  more  expensive  than  the 
other  and  its  superior  eflEiciency  is  still  unproved.  After  an 
experiment  of  a  year  in  one  Chicago  battalion,  it  was  abandoned 
and  the  plan  was  defeated  in  the  referendum  of  April,  191 5. 
The  two-platoon  system  was  defeated  in  the  New  York  legisla- 
ture in  the  year  1913.  While  still  in  the  experimental  stage, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  cost  of  the  two-platoon  system  is 
one-fifth  to  one-third  greater  but  that  the  lives  of  the  men  are 
made  more  normal. 

The  experience  of  Omaha,  under  legislative  restrictions  that 
have  not  given  it  quite  a  fair  chance,  indicates  an  increase  of 
about  50  per  cent  in  cost  during  the  seven  years'  experience. 
The  men  have  been  distinctly  benefited  by  the  reduction  of 
their  working  hours ;  a  large  force  is  within  call  in  case  of  big 
fires ;  and  greater  adaptability  of  the  department  is  possible 
than  under  the  single  platoon  system.  Omaha  has  influenced 
Kansas  City,  where  a  double  platoon  system  was  inaugurated 
in  191 2.  The  chief  of  the  fire  department  there  is  not  so  en- 
thusiastic as  the  other  municipal  officials.  DiscipUne  has  been 
found  more  difficult,  but  efiiciency  has  been  maintained.  Seattle 
has  found  that  the  force  had  to  be  increased  nearly  one-third 
and  the  cost  rather  more  than  that,  but  that  under  a  firm  hand 
discipline  and  efficiency  are  maintained.  Cities  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  are  experimenting  in  the  two-platoon  system. 


PROTECTION  133 

Little  work  and  only  playing  the  hose  makes  Jack  a  dull  fire 
fighter. 

High  Pressure  Systems 

High  pressure  fire  service  systems  have  been  introduced  into 
sixteen  American  cities,  led  by  New  York.  Some  of  the  smaller 
cities  get  the  added  pressure  by  gravity.  Buffalo  and  Boston 
relied  on  fire  boats  from  1898  until  Boston  built  a  high  pressure 
station  in  191 2.  The  pressure  of  the  water  in  these  systems 
varies  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds,  as  compared 
with  perhaps  twenty  under  the  low  pressure  systems.  The 
high  pressure  system  of  New  York  has  cost  nearly  $9,000,000, 
almost  three  times  as  much  as  Chicago's,  the  next  largest  system. 

When  an  alarm  is  received  at  a  high  pressure  pumping  station, 
power  is  applied  to  the  mains  so  that  many  streams  may  be 
thrown  as  high  as  two  hundred  feet  in  one  hundred  times  the 
volume  that  was  previously  available.  To  throw  a  stream  of 
water  to  a  great  height  from  an  ordinary  hydrant  requires  the 
assistance  of  fire  engines,  but  the  high  pressure  system  accom- 
plishes the  work  of  a  hundred  fire  engines.  In  this  way  2800 
acres  of  the  business  sections  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn  enjoy 
additional  protection.  The  only  larger  system  is  that  of  San 
Francisco,  where  the  high  pressure  stations  are  assisted  by  a 
great  reservoir  on  one  of  San  Francisco's  hills  so  that  over  5000 
acres  are  served.  The  Baltimore  fire  stimulated  activity  there 
as  the  San  Francisco  fire  did  in  the  City  of  the  Golden  Gate. 
Only  about  200  acres  are  protected  in  Baltimore,  but  provision 
is  made  through  the  business  area  so  that  manholes  open  at 
intervals  of  170  feet.  There  are  four  hydrant  connections  in 
each  manhole.  A  line  of  hose  may  be  used  from  every  fire 
plug,  each  under  a  different  pressure,  because  the  plug  has  a 
pressure  regulator  of  its  own. 

The  skyscraper  transfers  much  of  life  from  the  horizontal 
to  the  perpendicular. 

Fire  Losses 

Very  little  has  been  done  in  America  in  the  most  economical 
and  logical  method  of  reducing  fire  losses  :  namely,  more  rigorous 
building  codes.  New  York  City  provides  that  its  skyscrapers 
shall  be  built  with  standpipes  extending  from  the  roof  to  the 


134  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

basement  with  fire  plugs  on  each  floor.  A  water  tank  on  the 
roof  gives  abundant  pressure.  Hose  may  be  operated  on  the 
floor  on  which  the  fire  starts  much  more  expeditiously  than  from 
the  street  or  the  buildings  opposite. 

The  cost  of  fire  protection  each  year  is  almost  as  great  as  the 
fire  loss  per  annum.^  It  is  estimated  that  the  cash  cost  of  con- 
flagrations in  the  United  States  is  $416  a  minute  or  $600,000 
a  day.  That,  however,  refers  only  to  property  destroyed.  We 
have  to  support  unnecessarily  good  fire  departments  to  protect 
our  very  defective  property.  To  neutralize  the  shameless 
carelessness  of  citizens  we  have  to  increase  enormously  the 
service  of  our  water  departments  and  pay  heavy  insurance 
premiums.  As  a  consequence  of  these  fires  industry  is  inter- 
rupted, there  is  a  grave  loss  of  employment,  and,  worst  of  all, 
destruction  of  human  life  amounting  to  two  thousand  persons 
a  year,  while  those  incapacitated  number  six  thousand.  Apart 
from  the  waste  of  life,  the  mere  pecuniary  loss  is  nearly  half  a 
billion  dollars  a  year.^  A  Federal  report  for  1907  shows  that  this 
fire  loss  exceeded  the  total  value  of  the  gold,  silver,  copper 
and  petroleum  produced  in  the  United  States  for  that  year.  It 
shows  also  that  one-half  the  value  of  all  the  new  buildings  con- 
structed in  one  year  goes  up  in  smoke.  "The  buildings  con- 
sumed annually,  if  placed  on  lots  of  65-foot  frontage,  would  Hne 
both  sides  of  a  street  extending  from  New  York  to  Chicago." 
A  large  part  of  this  might  be  saved  by  reasonable  building 
regulations  which  are  stupidly  fought  by  people  who  suffer 
from  the  losses. 

Locking  the  barn  door  after  the  horse  is  stolen  is  not  a  bucoHc 
weakness.     It  is  an  urban  habit. 

Fire  Prevention 

For  a  long  time  we  have  tried  to  cope  with  this  terrible  fire 
loss  by  improving  our  fire  departments.  We  are  now  more 
wisely  undertaking  fire  prevention.  In  consequence  of  the 
awakening  due  to  the  Triangle  Shirt  Waist  Factory  fire  in  New 

'  For  a  comparative  statement  of  fire  protection  cost  see  Appendix  2. 

*  Bulletin  No.  418,  United  States  Geological  Survey,  estimates  the  total  annual 
fire  loss  at  $215,000,000;  fire  premiums,  in  excess  of  losses  paid,  $145,000,000;  ex- 
pense of  water  works  chargeable  to  fire  service,  $29,000,000 ;  expense  of  fire  depart- 
ments, $49,000,000;   fire  protection,  $18,000,000  —  a  total  of  over  $450,000,000. 


PROTECTION  135 

York,  when  145  factory  workers  were  needlessly  burned  to 
death,  the  city  created  a  Bureau  of  Fire  Prevention.  This  de- 
partment has  charge  of  all  inspections  except  those  of  pubHc 
amusements.  It  has  succeeded  in  installing  sprinkler  systems, 
multiplying  exits  and  fire  escapes,  removing  obstructions,  cor- 
recting electrical  equipment  and  heating  and  power  plants, 
installing  fire  appliances,  fireproofing  and  fire  alarm  systems, 
encouraging  fire  drills  and  controlling  combustibles. 

Any  holocaust  is  a  tragedy,  but  a  repetition  of  it  is  a  crime. 

A  uniformed  force  of  the  fire  prevention  department  now  makes 
monthly  housekeeping  inspections  to  the  number  of  100,000. 
Lectures  are  given  to  civic  societies,  Young  Men's  Christian 
Associations,  Boy  Scouts  and  schools.  Fire  Prevention  Day 
is  celebrated  on  October  g,  the  anniversary  of  the  Chicago  fire. 
This  occasion  prompts  the  clearing  up  of  rubbish,  —  a  fruitful 
source  of  fires,  —  overhauling  heating  apparatus  and  fire  ex- 
tinguishers, holding  fire  drills  in  the  pubUc  schools  and  factories, 
conducting  a  fire  apparatus  parade  and  using  churches  and 
moving-picture  shows  to  educate  the  people.  Great  ingenuity 
was  used  to  impress  upon  the  people  the  significance  of  the  New 
York  fire  loss  of  1913,  which  was  over  $7,000,000,  caused  by 
nearly  13,000  fires,  largely  preventable.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  60  per  cent  of  fires  are  due  to  sheer  heedlessness.  This  is 
not  difficult  to  believe  when  it  is  observed  that  superfluous  rub- 
bish and  the  reckless  handling  of  matches  and  tobacco  are  re- 
sponsible for  over  $100,000,000  of  our  annual  national  losses. 

"There  is  no  smoke  without  fire." 

The  fire  chief  of  Murphysboro,  Illinois,  has  established  an 
invaluable  precedent  by  enhsting  the  services  of  the  school 
children  for  fire  prevention.  More  than  five  hundred  school 
children  in  this  small  town  wrote  essays  dealing  with  the  fire 
risks  of  their  own  homes  —  bad  construction,  defective  flues, 
rubbish  and  such  things.  When  the  fire  chief  set  to  work  to 
remedy  these  menacing  conditions,  he  confronted  obdurate 
citizens  with  evidence  presented  by  their  own  children. 

The  cities  of  Kansas  use  in  their  schools  literature  sent  out  by 
the  State  Fire  Prevention  Bureau. 

Another  promising  method  of  fire  prevention  is  being  appUed 
in  New  York.  The  Appellate  Division  of  the  Supreme  Court  has 
decided  that  the  cost  of  putting  out  fires  may  be  assessed  on 


136  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

property  owners  who  have  been  negligent.  One  New  York 
corporation  was  compelled  to  pay  $1500  to  the  fire  department 
because  they  had  ignored  the  order  of  the  Bureau  of  Fire  Pre- 
vention to  install  automatic  sprinklers.  Similar  defiance  of 
the  authorities  has  led  to  the  fining  of  another  organization  $750. 
If  the  cost  of  fires  can  be  laid  upon  the  people  responsible  for 
them,  the  number  of  conflagrations  will  rapidly  decrease.  A 
successful  and  far-reaching  agitation  has  been  carried  on  against 
incendiarism.  Refusal  to  obey  the  mandate  of  the  city  is  now 
putting  the  lawless  landlord  in  the  category  with  the  incendiary. 
A  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire. 

Police 

The  beginnings  of  police  administration  in  American  cities 
were  made  in  the  employment  of  night  watchmen.  When  a 
city  police  service  was  organized  in  New  York  in  1845,  it  was 
entirely  distinct  from  the  enforcement  of  the  law  outside  of 
the  city.  There  still  remain  twihght  zones  in  most  centers  of 
population.  The  absence  of  any  state  or  national  police  service, 
the  multipHcity  of  American  laws  and  the  lack  of  home  rule  for 
cities  have  made  poHce  administration  peculiarly  difficult.  The 
progress  that  has  been  made  in  the  face  of  these  obstacles  is 
most  encouraging,  but  the  policeman  is  still  denied  the  latitude 
that  is  necessary  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 

A  thoroughly  satisfactory  police  service  can  only  follow  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  have  the  law  enforced  and  a 
willingness  to  pay  for  talent,  as  well  as  physique  and  character. 

PoUcemen,  generally,  are  required  to  pass  civil  service  exami- 
nations, including  a  physical  examination,  and  then  are  placed 
upon  an  eligible  list  from  which  they  are  drawn  experimentally 
to  a  permanent  appointment.  Limited  as  are  the  policeman's 
powers,  they  are  much  too  great  for  the  wages  he  receives.  He 
is  often  paid  as  little  as  $2.50  and  even  $2.00  a  day.  In  New 
York  and  Boston  alone  do  the  wages  rise  over  $3.50  a  day.  In 
many  cities  pensions  are  also  provided,  but  these  are  often  in- 
adequate and  in  some  instances,  as  in  Washington,  the  pension 
law  becomes  a  dead  letter.^ 

iThe  per  capita  cost  for  police  protection  varies  from  $i.ig  in  New  Orleans  to 
$3.48  for  San  Francisco,  and  the  average  number  of  patrolmen  to  10,000  inhabitants 


PROTECTION  137 

A  day  laborer's  pay  usually  buys  a  day  laborer's  services. 

The  reorganization  of  the  police  department  of  Chicago,  as  a 
result  of  the  investigations  of  the  Municipal  Efficiency  Cora- 
mission  in  1910,  throws  light  on  the  responsibilities  of  the  police 
force.  The  organization  is  divided  on  the  basis  of  outside  and 
inside  work  and  put  under  two  bureaus  —  an  active  and  a 
clerical  bureau.  The  first  division  of  the  active  bureau  is  that 
of  detectives.  Men  may  be  promoted  from  the  police  depart- 
ment to  the  detectiv^e  department  as  officers,  but  may  not 
return  to  the  poHce  department.  PoHtical  juggling  is  thus 
eliminated.  A  second  branch  of  the  active  bureau  is  the  traffic 
division,  charged  with  the  daylight  handling  of  traffic.  This  in- 
cludes both  mounted  and  foot  policemen.  There  is  a  patrol  divi- 
sion with  a  captain  in  charge  of  each  police  district,  who  is  held 
responsible  for  the  enforcement  of  laws,  ordinances  and  police 
rules.  Each  district  keeps  a  record  of  all  undesirable  characters 
known  to  be  frequenting  that  region.  Another  department  is 
the  ambulance  division,  in  charge  of  the  chief  surgeon.  There 
are  also  signal,  horse  and  miscellaneous  divisions.  Under 
miscellaneous  divisions  come  the  motor,  pound,  marine  and 
vehicle  sections.  The  inside  work  is  in  charge  of  a  clerical, 
a  mechanical  and  an  inspection  bureau.  This  reorganization 
of  the  police  department  has  developed  specialization  and  located 
responsibility  so  that  duplication  and  waste  are  minimized  and 
corruption  may  be  located. 

A  private  detective  system  is  a  confession  of  incompetency 
or  corruption. 

Two-,  Three-  and  Five-platoon  Systems 

In  the  pursuit  of  efficiency  there  is  at  present  a  vast  amount 
of  experimentation  to  determine  the  respective  merits  of  the  two-, 
three-  and  five-platoon  systems.  A  greater  elasticity  than  in 
the  fire  department  is  possible,  but  there  is  the  same  dual 
purpose  of  efficiency  and  humanitarianism.  Most  American 
cities  employ  the  two-platoon  system.  Under  this  plan  one- 
fourth  of  the  force  is  on  patrol  during  the  day,  one-half  at  night 
and  the  other  fourth  on  reserve  all  of  the  twenty-four  hours. 

varies  from  7.3  in  Minneapolis  to  2i.g  for  Washington,  D.C.     For  the  relative  size 
of  police  departments  of  thirteen  cities  see  Appendix  3. 


138  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

On  one  day  in  four  each  man  is  required  to  be  on  call  all  twenty- 
four  hours.  On  two  of  the  other  days  each  man  has  twelve 
hours  off,  and  on  one  day  only  two  hours  off.  This  system 
commands  the  services  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  force,  but 
gives  the  policeman  too  little  leisure. 

Perhaps  Arnold  Bennett  had  a  policeman  in  mind ! 

The  three-platoon  system  is  based  theoretically  on  the  eight- 
hour  day.  This  has  to  be  modified  by  the  necessity  of  having 
more  men  on  duty  at  night  than  during  the  day,  by  keeping  men 
for  emergency  and  special  detail,  and  by  making  allowance 
for  meals  and  family  duties.  Each  policeman,  however,  patrols 
not  more  than  eight  hours  a  day.  The  minimum  of  service, 
therefore,  is  one-third  of  the  force  during  the  daytime.  It 
leaves  too  small  a  reserve  force,  when  one  considers  the  inevitable 
loss  of  time  due  to  natural  disabihties.  It  requires  such  a  divi- 
sion of  labor  of  the  individual  that  his  free  time  is  often  not  con- 
secutive, so  that  recuperation  and  recreation  are  difl&cult.  The 
Director  of  the  Department  of  Public  Safety  of  Philadelphia 
indorses  the  three-platoon  system  without  hesitation.  Under 
the  old  plan  the  men  were  frequently  overworked ;  under  the 
new  they  come  fresh  to  their  detail  and  give  better  service  after 
having  enjoyed  family  life  in  their  leisure.  Philadelphia  has 
not  found  the  three-platoon  system  more  expensive  than  the 
other. 

No  system  is  desirable  that  invites  celibacy. 

New  York  has  tried  to  solve  this  dilemma  by  uniting  both  the 
two-  and  the  three-platoon  systems.  Under  this  plan  twice 
as  many  men  are  on  patrol  duty  at  night  as  in  the  daytime. 
Six  consecutive  hours  of  patrol  service  is  the  maximum.  Each 
policeman  has  one  full  day  off  in  every  five  and  the  briefest 
period  of  leisure  is  twelve  consecutive  hours.  Patrolmen  are 
allowed  to  sleep  during  their  period  of  reserve  duty  except  in 
cases  of  emergency.  House  duty  is  distributed  equally  among 
the  force.  This  seems  to  promise  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency 
in  the  public  service,  combined  with  the  greatest  benefit  to  the 
policeman. 

Inadequate  life  preservers  are  poor  economy  in  the  ship  of 
state. 


PROTECTION  139 

Humanizing  the  Police  System 

Toledo  and  Cleveland  have  established  precedents  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  police  force  that  may  well  spread  to  the  other 
cities  of  the  country.  Under  Golden  Rule  Jones  in  Toledo  and 
Chief  Kohler's  Golden  Rule  policy  in  Cleveland,  the  old  idea 
was  punctured  that  police  exist  to  arrest  people.  Cities  every- 
where have  suffered  from  the  freedom  with  which  policemen 
exercised  their  personal  enmities  or  yielded  to  graft,  trumping 
up  evidence  that  it  was  difficult  for  the  defendant  to  refute. 
Policemen  in  Toledo  were  instructed  not  to  arrest  persons  on 
suspicion.  If  any  person  were  so  arrested,  he  was  given  a  speedy 
trial.  Mayor  Jones's  attitude,  emulated  by  Mayor  Whitlock, 
was  that  of  sympathy,  not  antagonism.  The  policeman  and 
the  citizen  were  both  presumed  to  be  human. 

Indianapolis  forestalls  cold  feet  by  attaching  a  register  to  the 
steam-heating  system  for  the  downtown  policemen  to  stand  on. 

Cleveland  has  elaborated  the  Toledo  experience  until  all  of 
its  correctional  institutions  have  been  permeated.  Corruption 
has  been  nailed,  while  vice  and  crime  have  been  reduced.  Most 
people  are  put  in  jail  in  America  for  drunkenness,  vagrancy,  and 
disorderly  conduct,  and  are  thereby  given  their  first  opportunity 
to  become  criminal.  This  practice  was  broken  up  in  Cleveland 
and  the  arrests  were  reduced  from  over  30,000  a  year  in  1906  and 
1907  to  fewer  than  8000  in  19 10  and  191 2.  The  success  of  this 
Cleveland  endeavor  was  due  largely  to  trusting  the  policemen. 
They  were  not  to  arrest  people  for  first  offenses  but  to  warn  them. 
A  drunken  man  was  taken  home  instead  of  to  jail.  This  method 
has  been  encouraged  by  crediting  the  policeman  50  per  cent  on 
his  record,  as  compared  with  examinations  for  promotion. 

The  policeman  no  longer  rushes  his  arrests  at  the  end  of  the 
month  so  as  to  increase  his  batting  average. 

Police  Matrons  and  Policewomen 

The  entrance  of  woman  into  the  police  system  was  made  when 
the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union  succeeded  in  securing 
the  appointment  of  a  matron  in  a  Maine  city.  The  idea  was 
violently  opposed  by  the  eternal  male,  but  the  result  of  the 
experiment  was  such  an  unqualified  success  that  the  police 


14©  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

matron  is  now,  fortunately,  universal.  Sometimes,  in  the 
smaller  cities,  where  there  are  few  women  offenders,  the  police 
matron  is  only  summoned  from  her  residence  when  needed.  In 
the  larger  cities  a  matron  is  on  duty  every  hour  of  the  day  and 
night.  The  matron  calls  in  the  assistance  of  men  when  needed 
for  the  physical  control  of  her  prisoners,  but  usually  has  entire 
charge  of  the  women  and  children.  The  segregation  facilitated 
by  matrons  has  been  promoted  in  Detroit  by  a  police  station 
for  women.  Criminals,  insane  prisoners  and  women  of  the 
streets  are  absolutely  separated  from  the  homeless  and  from 
witnesses. 

Each  Pacific  coast  state  includes  a  city  that  has  organized  a 
Department  of  Public  Safety  for  Women  and  Children  — 
Tacoma,  Portland,  Oakland. 

The  appointment  of  policewomen  met  the  same  opposition 
that  had  been  shown  to  police  matrons  by  the  belated  enemies 
of  the  obvious.  The  multiphcation  of  women  offenders  is  due 
to  the  mobiUty  of  population  and  the  looseness  of  city  life. 
The  cave  man's  antagonism  that  has  proved  so  futile  in  the  case 
of  women  doctors  and  nurses  becomes  equally  ridiculous  when 
directed  at  policewomen.  The  old-fashioned  male,  incarnate 
in  the  traditional  chief  of  poUce  with  his  sarcasm  and  his  lewd- 
ness, has  disappeared  or  been  repressed  by  the  prompt  success 
of  this  innovation.  The  position  of  woman  police  officer  was 
created  in  Los  Angeles  in  191 1.  The  first  incumbent,  Mrs. 
AUce  Stebbins  Wells,  has  not  only  served  very  satisfactorily, 
but  has  been  a  propagandist  in  the  movement  to  secure  police- 
women in  other  American  cities.  Other  policewomen  have  been 
added  in  Los  Angeles,  and  a  "City  Mother,"  to  meet  parents 
and  children  confidentially,  away  from  the  pohce  station  or 
courts.  At  least  thirty  cities  now  total  more  than  twice  that 
number  of  policewomen,  Chicago  alone  including  thirty  in  its 
department.^  There  is  no  geographical  limitation,  except  that 
San  Antonio  is  the  only  city  south  of  Baltimore  to  follow  Los 
Angeles  in  the  appointment  of  policewomen. 

Women  and  children  get  scant  protection  in  the  land  of 
chivalry. 

•  For  a  list  of  cities  employing  policewomen  and  the  approximate  number  em- 
ployed in  igi4  see  Appendix  4.  All  Massachusetts  cities  have  been  authorized  to 
apix>int  policewomen. 


PROTECTION  141 

The  mayor  appointed  the  first  poUcewomen  of  Chicago  im- 
mediately after  the  adoption  of  equal  suffrage.  The  demand 
for  them  was  the  result  of  the  exposures  of  the  Vice  Commission. 
Their  first  duties  were  the  supervision  of  public  dance  halls, 
in  which  they  have  been  assisted  by  a  body  of  devoted  women 
volunteers.  A  couple  of  policewomen  have  visited  each  of 
the  dance  halls  at  least  once  a  season  and  dance  hall  managers 
now  welcome  them.  The  policewomen  have  cleaned  out  rest 
rooms  of  department  stores,  some  of  which  had  become  the 
haunt  of  undesirables.  The  liberties  taken  by  men  in  motion- 
picture  theaters  and  railway  stations  have  been  checked  by  the 
policewomen.  Their  attentions  have  been  valuable  to  the 
children,  old  men  and  immigrants.  The  school  supply  and 
other  stores  that  have  sold  demoralizing  things  to  minors  have 
been  much  better  regulated  since  the  advent  of  the  policewomen. 
Restaurants,  saloons  and  pool  rooms  have  been  better  supervised 
since  the  poHccwomen  undertook  the  protection  of  women  and 
minors.  "Questionable  flats  and  shady  hotels  have  been  in- 
vestigated." Two  poHcewomen  are  in  the  detective  force. 
They  have  been  invaluable  in  getting  evidence  against  flirts, 
and  "Help  Wanted"  scoundrels. 

That  the  police  force  becomes  more  efiicient  as  well  as  more 
human  when  it  becomes  less  masculine  is  the  testimony  of  the 
police  authorities  of  Los  Angeles  and  Chicago. 

Traffic  Police 

The  contrast  between  the  regulation  of  traflSc  in  European 
and  American  cities  was  long  a  source  of  humiliation  to  the 
American  traveler.  The  transformation  of  the  methods  of  the 
leading  American  cities,  due  primarily  to  the  advent  of  the  auto- 
mobile, has  been  rapid  and  spectacular.  Philadelphia  seems 
to  have  been  the  pioneer  in  organizing  trafl5c  squads  of  mounted 
policemen.  In  1904  two  squads  of  ten  mounted  patrolmen  were 
assigned  to  duty  on  the  leading  business  street  of  Philadelphia 
during  the  Christmas  hoUdays.  The  repetition  of  this  experi- 
ment in  the  following  year  led  to  the  permanent  pro- 
vision of  the  traffic  squad.  The  force  has  grown  to  nearly 
four  hundred,  of  whom  over  one  hundred  are  mounted  and 
over  fifty  are  on  motor  cycles.     The  heart  of  the  city  from  one 


142  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

river  to  another  is  thus  patrolled,  each  man  serving  eight  hours. 
In  the  market  districts  the  squad  begins  as  early  as  three  o'clock 
in  the  morning.  In  the  theater  district  it  remains  on  duty 
until  midnight.  These  are  selected  men  who  have  been  tried 
out  before  assignment  to  the  congested  districts. 

Men  of  different  temperaments  are  needed  for  the  varied  tasks, 
the  early  morning  market  teams  making  different  demands 
from  the  afternoon  shoppers  or  the  maelstrom  of  the  rush  hours. 

The  traffic  policeman  must  also  have  a  knowledge  of  the  city 
comparable  to  the  librarian's  knowledge  of  books.  He  must 
know  the  location  of  all  important  places,  businesses  and  street 
car  routes.  He  must  assist  all  varieties  of  people,  watch  the 
drivers  of  all  kinds  of  vehicles,  see  whether  the  motors  are 
tagged,  be  alert  to  prevent  accidents  or  to  render  assistance  in 
the  most  effective  way  when  needed.  In  the  late  afternoon  the 
traffic  policeman  on  the  east  side  of  the  City  Hall  is  called  upon 
to  watch  nearly  150  street  cars  and  over  1000  other  vehicles 
per  hour. 

The  traffic  policeman  must  be  a  cross  between  a  city  directory 
and  a  foot  ball  referee. 

The  traffic  squad  is  assisted  by  traffic  rules  which  drivers 
and  pedestrians  have  gradually  come  to  understand.  Safety 
zones,  marked  by  red  disks  with  white  letters  for  the  protection 
of  pedestrians,  were  first  established  in  Philadelphia.  It  also 
claims  to  be  a  pioneer  in  the  nearside  stop  of  street  cars.  Phila- 
delphia, like  Boston,  has  one-way  streets,  in  which  the  traffic 
can  move  in  only  one  direction.  This  is  simplified  in  Phila- 
delphia by  the  fact  that  usually  the  trolley  cars  run  only  one 
way  on  one  track  in  the  downtown  streets.  Automobiles  are 
parked  in  the  middle  of  Broad  street,  where  there  are  no  trolley 
tracks.^ 

The  traffic  poUceman's  function  is  not  to  "arrest,"  but  to 
keep  moving. 

If  Philadelphia  was  the  pioneer.  New  York  has  elaborated 
and  perfected  traffic  regulation  beyond  any  other  American  city. 
All  are  now  imitating  these  methods,  and  some  of  the  cities  have 
begun  to  control  the  movements  of  pedestrians  by  forbidding 
them,  as  well  as  drivers  of  vehicles,  to  cut  corners.     Cities  as 

>  Pittsburgh  and  Cleveland  are  e?:perinnenting  with  semaphores  at  their  busiest 
crossings. 


PROTECTION  143 

widely  separated  as  Indianapolis  and  Houston  are  rigid  in  their 
control  of  pedestrians. 
A  moving  street  crowd  may  be  a  mob  or  a  procession. 

Safety  Commission 

The  enormous  increase  in  accidents  in  cities  has  led  to  the  or- 
ganization of  the  National  Highways  Protective  Society  and  to 
local  efforts  at  protection,  illustrated  especially  by  the  Safety 
Commission  of  Chicago  and  Cook  County.  The  figures  from 
New  York  City  show  a  steady  increase  in  the  number  of  people 
killed  by  motors,  a  decrease  in  the  number  killed  by  wagons 
and  a  fluctuating  number  killed  by  trolley.  In  1913  motors 
killed  302,  trolleys  108  and  wagons  170.  Those  killed  by 
motors  or  sufficiently  injured  to  require  medical  attention  in 
New  York  in  1913  were  1485.  In  about  20  per  cent  of  these 
cases  the  owner  was  driving.^  While  motor  fatalities  are  passing 
those  from  other  vehicles  except  trolleys  and  are  hot  in  pursuit 
of  the  trolley,  they  do  not  yet  compare  with  firearm  fatalities 
in  Chicago.  The  motor- fatalities  increased  from  52  in  1910  to 
136  in  1913,  but  the  firearm  fataUties  have  risen  steadily  but 
less  rapidly  from  267  in  1910  to  328  in  1913. 

It  is  easier  to  tell  when  a  motor  is  loaded. 

The  ways  in  which  people  may  be  killed  by  vehicles  indicate 
clearly  how  many  of  these  accidents  are  preventable.  Of  the 
149 1  Chicago  people  run  over  or  struck  by  street  cars  in  191 2, 
142  were  fatally  injured,  but  of  the  11 53  accidents  in  getting  on  or 
oflf  street  cars  only  eight  were  fatal.  At  the  same  time  twenty- 
three  pedestrians  were  caught  between  cars  and  ten  of  them 
were  killed.  It  is  evident  that  the  traflEic  regulations  now  in 
force  on  the  streets  of  Chicago  must  reduce  considerably  the 
number  of  needless  accidents  by  enabling  even  old  people  or 
those  with  defective  eye  or  hearing  to  know  how  to  avoid  cars 
and  motors. 

When  it  is  considered  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  people 
do  not  know  enough  to  walk  to  the  right  on  the  sidewalk,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  they  get  into  trouble  on  the  street. 

To  educate  a  still  untrained  public  and  to  introduce  reasonable 
traffic  measures,   there  has  been  organized   the   Safety  Com- 

>  For  Chicago  figures  see  Appendix  5. 


144  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

mission  of  Chicago  and  Cook  County.  The  Safety  Commission 
includes  in  its  membership  the  mayor,  the  chief  of  the  fire  de- 
partment, the  superintendent  of  poHce,  other  officials  of  the 
city  and  county,  clergymen,  safety  experts,  engineers,  judges, 
labor  union  officials,  professional  and  business  and  newspaper 
men  and  women.  Lecturers  have  spoken  on  safety  to  over 
400,000  children  in  the  schools.  More  than  1800  ministers 
and  Sunday  school  superintendents  talked  about  public  pro- 
tection on  Safety  Day.  Corporation  newspapers  have  freely 
given  thousands  of  columns  to  the  public  safety  movement. 

New  York  City  is  putting  green  flash  lights  on  its  street  corners 
by  which  policemen  may  be  summoned  on  the  call  of  the  police 
station  or  the  private  citizen  who  pushes  a  button.  At  night 
the  flashes,  at  four-second  intervals,  can  be  seen  2500  feet  down 
all  four  thoroughfares.  The  flashes  may  be  seen  700  feet  in 
the  daytime. 

The  MetropoHtan  Park  police  superintendent  of  Boston  has 
introduced  a  signahng  system  on  the  Charles  River.  Along 
the  most  popular  stretch  of  this  seventeen-mile  riverfront  there 
extends  a  system  of  high  poles,  equipped  with  a  red  light  on  top 
and  a  telephone  at  the  bottom.  These  are  connected  with  a  high 
tower  and  switchboard.  In  case  of  an  accident,  all  the  lights 
flash  the  code  warning.  There  is  an  enormous  patronage  of 
the  river  summer  and  winter.  The  splendid  Ufe-saving  equip- 
ment —  including  police  trained  for  this  special  service,  life 
lines,  ladders,  and  300  emergency  boats  —  is  made  vastly  more 
serviceable. 

Safety  First ! 

Police  and  Fire  Schools 

Cities  have  begun  to  conduct  schools  for  the  training  of  firemen 
and  poUcemen  so  that  their  apprenticeship  may  not  be  served 
at  too  great  an  expense  to  the  city.  The  New  York  Fire  College 
seems  to  have  set  the  standard.  Fire  captains  have  been  sent 
from  other  cities  to  enjoy  its  benefits.  The  Bureau  of  Fire  of 
the  Philadelphia  Department  of  PubHc  Safety  conducts  a 
training  school  for  probational  hosemen  and  laddermen.  Two 
buildings  of  different  heights  are  used  for  laboratory  practice, 
one  of  the  buildings  being  equipped  with  office  and  classroom. 
Each  form  of  fire  apparatus  is  employed  to  familiarize  the  men 


PROTECTION  145 

with  its  working.  The  men  are  chosen  from  the  civil  service 
list,  assigned  to  the  various  companies,  and  required  to  attend 
the  school  for  thirty  days.  Two  instructors  take  men  in  squads 
of  seven  and  not  only  famiharize  them  with  all  the  different 
processes  for  extinguishing  lires,  but  with  the  methods  of  saving 
people  under  all  sorts  of  hypothetical  situations. 

The  protective  instinct  is  no  more  scientific  than  the  maternal 
instinct. 

The  New  York  school  not  only  trains  policemen  in  detailed 
duties,  but  provides  lectures  on  crime  and  guilt.  In  Phila- 
delphia one  man  is  taken  from  each  station  house  —  forty  in 
all.  They  are  excused  from  their  regular  duties  for  two  weeks, 
while  enjoying  instruction  in  every  branch  of  police  duty,  in- 
cluding first  aid  to  the  injured.  Chicago  requires  double  the 
length  of  time  given  in  Philadelphia  to  this  instruction. 

The  law  and  order  school  may  pay  better  dividends  to  the  citi- 
zens than  the  law  school. 

The  Regulation  of  Alcohol 

The  regulation  of  morals  is  commonly  interpreted  to  mean 
the  control  of  sensualism.  Laws  are  passed  regulating  obscene 
pictures  and  plays,  the  conduct  of  people  in  public  dance  halls 
or  any  similar  places  of  amusement,  and  the  private  relations 
of  people  so  far  as  these  seem  to  offend  the  accepted  standards 
of  morahty.  Whatever  may  be  said  about  the  desirabihty  of 
individual  liberty  in  the  consumption  of  alcohoUc  beverages,  it 
would  be  impossible  in  an  American  city  to  have  absolute 
free  trade.  The  Federal  Government  by  its  internal  revenue 
laws  controls  to  some  extent  the  production  of  liquors,  while 
the  dispensing  of  them  is  subject  to  regulation  by  both  state  and 
city  everywhere.  The  licensing  of  saloons  is  generally  deter- 
mined by  state  law,  but  many  limitations  are  imposed  by  cities. 

There  is  no  scientific  attempt  to  deal  with  intemperance  any- 
where in  the  United  States. 

Outside  of  prohibition  states  or  communities,  the  chief 
methods  of  regulation  are  the  limitation  of  the  enticements  of 
the  saloon  (such  as  restricting  the  patronage  of  women,  the  use 
of  music  or  the  provision  of  free  lunches  and  gambling  devices), 
the  time  when  the  saloon  may  be  opened,  and  the  number  of 


146  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

saloons.  Sunday  closing  is  now  very  generally  observed.  The 
closing  of  the  saloon  on  election  days  is  rigidly  enforced,  and  in 
some  communities  the  saloons  are  closed  on  holidays.  The 
Massachusetts  law  limits  the  number  of  saloons  to  one  per 
thousand  in  any  community.  Some  cities,  notably  Worcester 
and  Fall  River,  keep  well  within  the  limitation  set  by  law. 
Cities  where  there  is  no  such  limitation  run  as  high  as  San 
Francisco,  that  has  live  saloons  per  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
Milwaukee  that  has  six. 

The  most  rigid  and  successful  limitation  of  the  number  of 
saloons  is  in  Los  Angeles,  where  the  figure  was  set  at  two  hundred 
in  1899,  when  the  population  was  102,479.  With  a  population 
of  319,198  the  number  of  saloons  remains  the  same.  By  this 
limitation  the  exchange  value  of  saloon  sites  is  very  high.  The 
city  has  an  invaluable  power  of  limitation,  since  it  is  only  on 
the  basis  of  previous  good  behavior  that  a  saloon  site  may  be 
sold.  The  restrictions  of  Los  Angeles  are  not  all  rational  (tables 
and  chairs  have  been  removed  from  the  saloons)  and  the  city 
does  not  benefit  by  the  increase  in  the  value  of  the  sites.  Never- 
theless, few  cities  hold  such  a  leverage  over  the  liquor  trade. 

Men  in  the  liquor  business  have  been  more  oblivious  to  the 
signs  of  the  times  than  railroad  directors. 

It  has  been  the  practice  of  prohibitionists  to  annihilate  the 
liquor  business  at  will  on  the  basis  of  a  bare  majority  vote. 
This  has  undoubtedly  encouraged  the  lawlessness  of  distillers 
and  brewers.  Some  cities  have  made  provision  for  compensating 
property  holders  and  business  interests  when  saloons  are  closed. 
Vallejo,  California,  has  reduced  the  number  of  saloons  from 
forty-six  to  twenty-five.  The  license  fees  have  been  trebled  to 
create  a  fund  from  which  to  compensate  the  victims.  Sacra- 
mento in  1 9 13  passed  a  Saloon  Compensation  Ordinance.  A 
saloon  keeper  there  has  received  $3000  as  compensation  from  a 
fund  contributed  partly  by  the  city  and  partly  by  the  remaining 
saloonmen. 

The  saloon  would  not  be  classed  with  the  brothel  had  it  not 
been  for  the  blindness  of  the  liquor  interests. 


PROTECTION  147 


"The  Social  Evil" 


Many  cities  have  had  thoroughgoing  investigations  into 
''the  social  evil"  in  recent  years.'  The  chief  consequence  has 
been  the  organization  of  vice  commissions,  or  more  properly 
called  in  Chicago,  and  some  other  cities,  morals  commissions.^ 
The  perennial  aboHtion  of  segregated  vice  continues  without 
much  damage  to  the  social  evil.  Nevertheless,  the  situation 
has  been  distinctly  clarified  in  many  cities.  Ogden  and  Youngs- 
town  claim  to  have  cleaned  out  all  houses  of  prostitution,  but 
give  no  account  of  where  the  prostitutes  have  gone.  Cities 
generally  are  cooperating  with  the  Federal  Government  in  the 
pursuit  of  white  slave  traffickers  and  are  introducing  ordinances 
designed  to  regulate  dance  halls,  skating  rinks,  motion-picture 
theaters,  saloons,  and  other  places  that  are  likely  feeders  of  sex 
immorality. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  since  Americans  learned  the 
fallacy  of  the  careless  statement  that  people  are  not  made  good 
by  legislation. 

Many  of  the  measures  represent  as  blind  groping  as  the  Mann 
White  Slave  Law,  but  the  Chicago  Vice  Commission,  a  large 
and  notable  body  of  citizens,  made  an  exhaustive  report  that 
attracted  national  attention.  It  stirred  many  communities  to 
emulation.  Four  years  after  the  pubHcation  of  this  report 
the  city  council  of  Chicago  authorized  the  Morals  Commission. 
It  had  been  necessary  to  overcome  the  opposition  of  the  health, 
police  and  legal  departments  and  the  formidable  organization 
known  as  the  United  Societies  for  Local  Self-Government.  This 
organization  —  a  federation  of  over  nine  hundred  organizations, 
including  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  women's  societies  —  had 
directed  its  efforts  largely  to  freedom  of  Sunday  amusements 
and  freedom  in  the  sale  of  alcoholic  beverages.  When  finally 
convinced  that  a  larger  liberty  was  to  be  gained  by  the  latest 
statute  creating  a  morals  commission,  their  approval  made  an 
overwhelming  public  sentiment  in  Chicago.  The  commission 
is  only  advisory,  but  has  started  auspiciously,  empowered  to 
study  sexual  immoraUty  in  all  forms  and  its  causes,  the  rehabili- 

1  For  a  list  of  cities  and  two  states  which  have  had  vice  investigations  and  have 
made  reports,  see  Appendix  6. 

'  For  cities  with  standing  morals  commissions,  see  Appendix  7. 


148  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

tation  of  its  victims,  and  to  promote  action  against  disorderly 
houses  not  only  in  Chicago,  but  within  three  miles  of  the  city 
limits. 

The  enemies  of  morality  must  observe  the  neutrality  laws 
within  the  three-mile  boundary. 

The  Red  Light  Injunction  and  Abatement  Laws  of  Iowa  and 
other  states '  lay  the  responsibility  where  it  will  be  felt.  A 
building  devoted  to  prostitution  or  assignation  may  be  declared 
a  public  nuisance.  In  such  a  case  all  the  fixtures  and  furniture 
of  the  building  may  be  sold  and  the  house  kept  without  occupant 
for  a  year.  Abundant  provision  is  made  for  the  owner's  and 
occupier's  defense,  but  the  income  from  the  building  is  annihi- 
lated unless  the  abatement  of  the  nuisance  is  guaranteed.  The 
application  of  this  law  touches  respectable  people  so  closely 
that  it  has  not  yet  become  effective  in  large  cities.  It  works 
well  in  Fargo,  North  Dakota. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence,  with  its  protection  of  "life, 
liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness"  promises  to  survive 
the  Constitution,  with  its  protection  of  property. 

•  A  list  of  the  states  in  which  Red  Light  Injunction  statutes  are  now  in  eSect 
appears  in  Appendix  8. 


CHAPTER  IX 
JUSTICE   AND   CHARITY 

Municipal  Courts 

Justice  is  frustrated  not  merely  by  the  designing  and  power- 
ful. The  machinery  of  law  in  American  cities  is  clumsy.  As 
new  conditions  have  arisen  new  courts  have  been  created,  until 
there  is  needless  friction  and  expense.  Chicago  has  blazed  the 
way  to  coordination  by  the  creation  of  municipal  courts.  These 
have  not  yet  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  administration  of 
law  in  Chicago  but  they  are  speciaUzed  under  a  common  admin- 
istration with  a  chief  justice. 

Chicago  is  dependent  on  popularly  elected  partisan  judges 
and  needless  political  clerks,  but  the  system  favors  justice. 

The  successful  specialization  of  the  municipal  courts  enables 
each  judge  to  give  his  attention  to  cases  of  a  certain  type,  thus 
enormously  increasing  his  efficiency.  It  also  proves  the  neces- 
sity of  reform  of  procedure  in  the  courts.  A  husband  refusing 
support  to  wife  and  children,  but  not  abandoning  them,  must 
be  tried  in  the  County  Court.  The  support  of  the  wife  cannot  be 
enforced  there,  however,  because  this  court  only  has  jurisdiction 
over  blood  relatives.  The  municipal  court,  on  the  other  hand, 
cannot  enforce  a  clause  under  the  Pauper  Act  because  that  is  the 
province  of  the  County  Court.  If  the  aggrieved  wife  goes  to  the 
Circuit  or  Superior  Court  she  is  told  that  relief  can  only  come  in 
the  form  of  divorce.  Thus  the  law  encourages  divorce  merely 
to  secure  support.  The  Domestic  Relations  branch  of  the  Munic- 
ipal Court  has  been  eminently  successful  in  keeping  people  out 
of  divorce  courts,  but  it  is  grievously  handicapped  by  the  law. 
The  increased  power  of  the  court  under  the  adult  probation  act, 
enabling  the  adults  to  be  treated  as  the  Juvenile  Court  does 
children,  increases  the  sphere  of  the  court. 

The  court  has  a  hard  time  getting  justice  out  of  the  law. 

149 


150  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

One  of  the  specialized  courts  growing  out  of  the  experience  of 
the  municipal  court  is  the  Speeders'  Branch,  which  deals  with  the 
large  number  of  infractions  against  the  law  by  automobile 
owners.  One  of  the  most  serious  abuses  stopped  by  this  court 
has  been  the  attempt  to  influence  the  judge.  Few  responsible 
people  seem  to  appreciate  the  impropriety  of  this  method  which 
is  not  open  to  the  ordinary  lawbreaker. 

The  Chicago  Municipal  Courts,  with  an  able  chief  justice  and 
weekly  meetings  of  the  judges,  begin  to  approximate  justice. 

Chicago  is  not  alone  in  its  municipal  courts  nor  in  its  develop- 
ment of  their  pecuhar  functions.  The  Municipal  Court  of  Cleve- 
land includes  a  ConciHation  Court,  which  follows  the  methods 
of  Norway  and  Denmark.  Cleveland  has  enjoyed  the  freedom 
of  Chicago  in  developing  its  judicial  methods  so  that  it  has  not 
needed  the  Public  Defender  of  Los  Angeles.  The  chief  justice 
selected  a  court  clerk  to  present  the  cases  of  the  needy. 
Twelve  hundred  such  cases  were  settled  out  of  court  in  the 
year  191 2.  The  success  of  this  method  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  Conciliation  Branch.  A  writ  is  served  by  registered  mail, 
which  is  the  habitual  practice  of  the  Cleveland  Municipal  Court. 
Without  the  presence  of  lawyers,  the  litigants  present  cases  in- 
volving less  than  S50.  The  judge  is  usually  successful  in  making 
the  adjustment  without  a  trial  and  without  publicity.  In  a  year 
and  a  half  from  March,  1913,  the  ConciHation  Court  had  dis- 
posed of  all  but  200  of  the  6184  cases  filed.  The  fees  ranged  from 
twenty-five  cents  to  forty-five  cents.  This  practice  has  relieved 
the  docket  of  the  court,  restricted  the  shyster  lawyer,  and 
given  the  people  a  friendlier  attitude  toward  the  administration 
of  justice. 

When  writs  are  served  by  registered  mail  and  justice  costs  no 
more  than  a  parcel  by  post  the  public  seems  to  be  coming  into 
its  own. 

Juvenile  Courts 

The  herding  of  mischievous  boys  and  careless  girls  among 
hardened  criminals  and  the  application  of  methods  devised  for 
adult  lawbreakers  have  led  to  the  demand  for  the  segregation  of 
juvenile  offenders.  The  easy  view  of  the  innocent  and  the  un- 
caught  that  all  lawlessness  is  equally  intolerable  has  delayed  the 
appreciation  of  the  necessity  for  discrimination.     A  probation 


JUSTICE   AND   CHARITY  151 

officer  had  been  appointed  in  Boston  in  1878.  The  hearing  of 
children's  cases  apart  from  those  of  adults  grew  out  of  the  ex- 
perience with  juvenile  probation.  This  method  was  adopted  in 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Rhode  Island  before  the  creation 
of  any  juvenile  court.  In  1897  a  Hull  House  resident  suc- 
ceeded in  arousing  a  demand  for  a  juvenile  court. 

It  has  taken  a  long  time  to  reach  what  Ellen  Key  calls  "The 
Age  of  the  Child." 

Like  many  other  institutions  evolving  out  of  our  common 
experience,  the  juvenile  court  originated  in  widely  separated 
places  about  the  same  time.  In  1899  Colorado  provided  a  school 
law  for  the  separate  treatment  of  children,  and  Illinois  enacted 
Harvey  B.  Kurd's  law,  entitled  "An  act  to  regulate  the  treat- 
ment and  control  of  all  dependent,  neglected  and  delinquent 
children."  The  first  separate  court  designed  exclusively  for  the 
trial  of  children  was  established  in  IndianapoHs  in  1903,  but  for 
four  years  previous  to  this  children  had  been  tried  separately  in 
the  established  courts  of  Chicago  and  Denver.  These  two  pio- 
neer courts  have  differed  in  their  development :  the  tendency 
in  Chicago  being  toward  differentiating  young  people  and  parents 
from  younger  children ;  in  Denver  to  keep  the  cases  under  the 
same  jurisdiction  in  the  belief  that  it  expedites  justice.  The 
same  impulses  that  led  to  the  organization  of  juvenile  courts  for 
separate  trial  demanded  separate  places  of  detention  for  children 
and  young  people.^ 

^The  child  has  been  given  a  presumption  of  innocence  on  ac- 
count of  its  youth. 

The  New  York  County  Children's  Court  is  the  largest  of  its 
kind,  although  it  cares  for  a  decreasing  number  of  children.  Its 
operations  have  revealed  the  fact  that  most  children  are  arrested 
for  trifling  offenses.  Seventy  per  cent  of  their  misconduct  is 
traceable  to  parental  delinquency.  It  is  claimed  that  more  than 
half  of  the  children  appear  in  court  as  a  result  of  their  limited 
opportunity  for  play.  The  majority  of  the  offenders  are  in  their 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  years,  at  the  beginning  of  adolescence, 
when  the  child  needs  opportunities  not  afforded  by  the  city  street. 
Still  only  11  per  cent  of  those  released  on  probation  fail  to  make 
good  and  have  to  be  sent  to  institutions .     Only  one-fifth  of  all 

•  For  the  differentiation  of  Juvenile  Courts  :;ee  .\ppendix  i. 


152  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

the  children  arraigned  go  to  institutions  and  at  least  half  of  them 
are  sirffering  vicariously  for  their  parents.  The  court  is  given 
large  latitude  in  deaUng  with  the  child  in  New  York,  acting  on 
the  presumption  that  a  child's  chief  need  is  proper  guardianship. 
Only  in  rare  cases  is  the  child  treated  as  a  criminal. 

The  correction  of  the  slum  child  must  be  directed  not  at  the 
child  but  at  the  slum. 

The  Denver  Juvenile  Court  was  supplemented  in  1903  by  a 
law  making  it  also  a  parental  court.  This  was  the  law  of  Contrib- 
utory Delinquency,  holding  "all  persons  responsible  for  encour- 
aging or  by  neglect  or  otherwise  contributing  to  delinquency  of 
children."  Whereas  Chicago  has  differentiated  children  from 
youth  and  adults,  the  Denver  Juvenile  Court  has  had  jurisdic- 
tion over  all  males  under  twenty-one  and  females  under  eighteen 
for  all  offenses.  Denver  has  also  been  notable  for  the  spirit  of 
the  juvenile  court  that  has  been  able  to  trust  practically  all 
prisoners  to  go  alone  to  the  institutions  to  which  they  are  con- 
signed. In  eight  years  only  five  out  of  507  prisoners  sent  in  that 
way  have  been  lost. 

The  juvenile  court  has  pointed  the  way  to  the  family  court. 

While  the  child  was  separated  from  the  criminal  adult,  the 
unsympathetic  or  curious  spectator  was  admitted  to  the  all  too 
pubHc  hearings  of  the  juvenile  court.  Judge,  jury,  probation 
ofl5cers,  court  clerks,  stenographers,  and  privileged  onlookers 
faced  the  child.  During  trial  immediately  behind  the  child 
stood  parents  or  friends,  prosecutor,  and  other  persons  connected 
with  the  case.  In  the  background  were  the  children  and  others 
involved,  the  next  cases,  and  a  group  of  casual  spectators.  Ex- 
cept at  the  discretion  of  the  judge,  the  child's  private  life  was 
bared  to  the  public.  If  the  child  were  very  young  or  sensitive 
the  judge  might  make  a  confidential  investigation.  Juvenile 
court  experience  has  transformed  this.  Instead  of  the  juvenile 
criminal  standing  before  the  menacing  judge,  we  are  coming  to 
have  the  wayward  child  sitting  in  the  presence  of  a  foster-father. 

The  child  has  at  last  become  the  ward  of  the  State. 

Judge  Ben  Lindsey,  the  good  genius  of  the  children  of  Denver, 
in  1903  appointed  as  assistant  to  hear  the  girls'  cases,  Mrs.  Ida 
L.  Gregory,  who  had  been  connected  with  the  juvenile  court  from 
its  early  days.  When  it  seems  preferable  she  has  heard  cases 
alone.     Judge  Pinckney  of  Chicago,  feeling  that  it  was  outra- 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  153 

geous  to  have  the  lives  of  young  girls  paraded  before  a  curious 
public,  proposed  the  appointment  of  a  woman  assistant  to  try 
these  cases  in  absolute  privacy  and  since  19 13  Miss  Mary  M. 
Bartelme  has  conducted  these  cases  in  her  own  chambers  with 
only  those  present  who  are  directly  interested.' 
A  wayward  child  is  treated  as  the  victim  of  society. 

The  Juvenile  Court  of  Chicago 

The  Chicago  juvenile  court  has  not  only  separated  children 
from  adults,  but  treats  the  deHnquent  child  as  the  dependent 
child  has  long  been  treated.  Until  the  establishment  of  this 
court  a  child  was  supposed  to  reach  the  age  of  criminal  respon- 
sibility at  ten.  It  seems  like  the  first  break  of  light  into  the  dark 
ages  to  note  that  within  the  lifetime  of  the  present  generation 
a  voluntary  group  of  Chicago  women  first  undertook  to  provide 
a  teacher  for  boys  —  some  of  them  as  young  as  ten  —  who  were 
awaiting  trial  or  serving  sentence.  The  juvenile  court  intro- 
duced the  segregation  of  children  in  a  separate  court  and  a  sepa- 
rate place  of  detention,  together  with  a  probation  system  that 
would  treat  the  child  preferably  in  its  home.  In  the  year  pre- 
vious to  the  establishment  of  this  court  over  five  hundred  boys 
and  girls  were  tried  in  the  criminal  court  and  committed  to  the 
county  jail. 

If  a  jail  makes  a  criminal  of  an  adult  first  offender  what 
chance  has  a  child  ? 

A  juvenile  detention  home  was  established  to  facilitate  the 
work  of  the  court.  The  improvised  building  and  barn  that 
served  girls  and  boys  respectively  for  the  five  years  from  1902 
has  been  supplanted  now  by  the  Juvenile  Detention  Home  at 
771  Gilpin  Place.  There  is  nothing  Uke  a  jail  about  this  home. 
The  detention  is  compulsory,  but  the  care  is  parental.  The 
children  enjoy  medical  attention,  teaching,  baths,  and  play. 
The  teachers  are  supplied  by  the  Board  of  Education.  The  ex- 
perience growing  out  of  the  juvenile  court,  the  juvenile  detention 
home,  and  the  probation  system  has  led  to  a  rapid  differentia- 
tion and  expansion  of  the  court's  functions.  The  age  of  juvenile 
delinquents  has  been  raised  and  new  courts  estabUshed  for  older 

•  AppendLx  2. 


154  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

boys  and  girls.  Two  psychopathic  institutes  have  been  organ- 
ized for  children  of  different  ages. 

A  mothers'  pension  law  has  been  enacted  making  it  vastly 
easier  for  mothers  to  keep  their  children  at  home.  In  two  and  a 
half  years  of  experience  with  the  mothers'  pension  law  only  one 
child  out  of  the  1754  affected  has  become  dehnquent  and  only 
two  have  become  truants. 

The  separation  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  Chicago  Juvenile 
Court  has  given  Judge  Mary  M.  Bartelme  a  rich  experience  in 
dealing  with  delinquent  girls  and  has  provided  the  girls  with  a 
confessional  entirely  unlike  a  court  trial.  One  case  is  tried  at  a 
time.  The  judge  is  sympathetic,  though  keen.  Her  kindly 
interest  does  not  prevent  an  exhaustive  examination  of  the  case. 
After  the  formal  hearing,  the  judge  usually  has  a  confidential 
session  with  the  "Httle  girl,"  sotto  voce.  There  is  no  court  at- 
mosphere. Simple  pictures  are  on  the  walls.  The  inquisitive 
crowd  is  absent.  Although  the  girls  are  given  the  option  of  ap- 
pearing before  the  juvenile  court  judge  or  his  woman  assistant 
they  always  choose  Miss  Bartelme.  Only  as  a  last  resort  does 
the  judge  send  the  girl  to  an  institution.  She  either  returns  home 
on  probation  or  is  placed  in  a  family  at  domestic  service.  The 
girls  remain  on  the  hst  of  the  probation  officer  until  they  are 
eighteen  years  of  age.  In  October,  1914,  169  girls  were  on  pro- 
bation in  families  other  than  their  own.  Eighty-one  had  bank 
books  with  accounts  varying  from  $1  to  $136. 

The  dooiS  of  the  juvenile  court  usually  open  outwards. 

Court  of  Domestic  Relations' 

The  notoriety  of  the  divorce  court  belongs  to  a  different  age 
from  the  privacy  of  the  Chicago  Court  of  Domestic  Relations. 
In  1913  fifty  per  cent  of  the  divided  families  that  appeared  in  this 
court  were  reunited.  The  purpose  of  the  judge  is  to  sustain 
marital  relations.  In  less  than  one  out  of  five  cases  does  a  lawyer 
appear.  Nearly  half  of  the  cases  are  heard  within  one  week  after 
the  complaint  is  made.  Where  a  husband  deserts  his  family, 
three  times  out  of  four  he  is  summoned  and  an  order  for  the  pay- 
ment of  money  made  within  two  days.  A  deserting  husband  has 
only  one  alternative  —  a  term  in  jail  or  a  fine.  If  he  fail  to  pay 
the  latter  he  is  on  his  way  to  jail  within  an  hour. 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  155 

The  purpose  of  the  court  is  to  preserve  domestic  peace; 
where  this  is  not  possible  punishment  is  speedy. 

More  than  half  of  the  cases  in  the  Court  of  Domestic  Relations 
are  due  to  desertion.  Seventy  per  cent  of  these  were  becai'se  of 
drunkenness,  immorality,  or  venereal  disease  of  the  husbaid.^ 
In  130  cases  men  had  been  arrested  for  contributing  to  th^  de- 
linquency of  girls.  Most  of  these  "men"  were  boys  between 
fifteen  and  twenty  involving  girls  from  fourteen  to  seventeen 
An  incredibly  small  minority  of  these  cases  are  attributec 
directly  to  economic  causes.  Offenses  against  woman  anc  child 
labor  laws  are  within  the  province  of  this  court.  One  of  the 
most  significant  factors  of  the  municipal  court  in  Chicago  is  that 
one  judge  sits  continuously  and  gains  experience  in  deahng  with 
offenses  against  the  domestic  relations.     He  becomes  a  specialist. 

Sex  aberrations  even  when  involving  the  welfare  of  the  home 
are  no  longer  lumped  with  burglary  and  murder. 

The  first  year  of  the  court  there  were  fewer  than  three  thous- 
and cases.  The  third  year  there  were  more  than  four  thousand. 
Lawlessness  has  not  increased.  On  the  contrary,  wronged 
women  and  children  without  the  means  to  employ  legal  talent 
seek  the  court  in  greater  numbers.  The  first  year  $19,000  was 
paid  for  non-support,  the  third  year  $100,000.  The  unusual 
character  of  the  court  is  evidenced  by  its  including  a  creche  in  its 
equipment,  in  which  a  Christmas  tree  was  part  of  the  furnishing 
last  year.  Two  secretaries  relieve  the  judge,  hearing  ten  thou- 
sand complaints  of  quarreling  couples  a  year.  There  is  a  court 
physician  and  a  visiting  nurse.  Many  domestic  difficulties  come 
from  mental  deficiency  and  venereal  diseases.  Married  couples 
with  the  minds  of  children  need  pathological  treatment.  Hus- 
bands shown  to  be  physically  incapacitated  find  the  maternal 
instinct  supplanting  belligerency  in  complaining  wives. 

A  sympathetic  court  sitting  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  a  day  be- 
comes a  refuge  instead  of  a  purgatory. 

» Five  hundred  out  of  3700  cases  heard  in  the  Chicago  Court  of  Domestic  Relations 
in  1913  originated  in  bastardy.  One  judge  married  162  of  these  couples.  Judge 
Bonniwell  in  Philadelphia  assesses  on  the  man  the  cost  of  confinement  and  the  sup- 
port of  the  child  till  fourteen  years  of  age. 


156  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  New  York  Night  Court 

The  Night  Court  was  established  before  the  Chicago  Morals 
Court  and  differs  from  the  latter  in  its  lack  of  privacy.  It  is  a 
humane  institution,  however,  in  holding  its  sessions  at  night 
so  that  women  offenders  —  especially  in  connection  with  the 
sodal  evil  —  need  not  be  unnecessarily  confined  over  night.  It 
was  found  that  40  per  cent  of  those  arrested  were  discharged 
after  unjust  confinement.  There  was  a  system  of  professional 
bailing  that  fleeced  the  girl  of  $5  and  involved  the  police  in 
ways  that  indicated  the  exploitation  of  innocent  girls.  The  first 
Night  Court  was  estabhshed  in  August,  1907,  and  later  differ- 
entiated so  that  men  and  women  are  now  tried  separately. 

Woman  is  still  tacitly  regarded  as  the  fountain  of  vice. 

Soliciting,  loitering,  and  tenement  house  prostitution  are  now 
confined  to  the  women's  Night  Court.  Fines  have  been  re- 
moved and  there  is  no  longer  any  age  limitation  on  the  commit- 
ments to  the  state  reformatory.  In  this  way  two  of  the  greatest 
sources  of  the  manufacture  of  criminals  have  been  eUminated. 
The  probation  system  enlightens  the  court  so  that  women  may 
have  individual  treatment  where  formerly  they  were  so  lumped 
together  that  it  not  only  put  a  premium  on  the  arrest  of  women, 
but  speedily  encouraged  criminal  habits.  The  first  offender  who 
desires  to  escape  from  the  hell  that  yawns  for  her  finds  unsus- 
pected paths  opening  out  of  this  court.  If  she  wants  to  hold 
those  responsible  who  have  led  to  her  fall  she  finds  the  court 
staff  ready  to  help  her,  but  the  court  demands  requisite  evi- 
dence and  the  continued  courage  of  the  victim  through  the 
trial. 

It  begins  to  be  admitted  that  a  fallen  woman  may  rise  again. 

The  whole  treatment  of  women  offenders  in  New  York  City 
has  been  transformed  in  six  years.  The  number  of  arrests  has  de- 
creased two-thirds  without  any  apparent  increase  in  offenders. 
At  the  same  time  the  percentage  of  convictions  has  increased 
from  63  to  87  per  cent.  More  than  two-thirds  of  those  con- 
victed were  fined  in  1907,  but  no  fines  are  imposed  to-day. 
Twice  as  many  are  put  upon  probation  and  the  reformatory 
institutions  are  filled  to  capacity  in  the  endeavor  to  provide  a 
shelter  and  a  place  for  recuperation  and  reform.  Out  of  nearly 
5500  women  3000  have  been  convicted  but  once,  showing  either 


JUSTICE   AND    CHARITY  157 

a  remarkable  exodus  from  New  York  or  a  change  in  the  manner 
of  living.  Eleven  per  cent  of  the  women  have  been  arrested  four 
times,  representing  a  class  that  need  permanent  detention  and 
correction.  The  related  institutions  are  not  yet  adequate  to  the 
proper  support  of  the  Night  Court,  but  the  attitude  toward  the 
woman  offender  has  been  greatly  changed. 
They  no  longer  abandon  hope  who  enter  here. 

Psychopathic  Institutes 

The  work  of  the  juvenile  court  of  Chicago  was  supplemented  in 
1909  by  the  appointment  of  Doctor  WiUiam  Healy  to  organize 
a  juvenile  psychopathic  institute.  The  purpose  of  the  institute 
is  to  examine  defective  children  and  aid  the  court  in  diagnosing 
their  troubles  and  providing  remedies.  The  institute  tries  to 
determine  the  mental  age  of  the  children  as  distinguished  from 
the  number  of  years  they  have  been  in  the  world.  Out  of  five 
hundred  delinquent  boys  and  girls  at  the  Detention  Home  less 
than  10  per  cent  were  feeble  minded.  Environment  was  the 
chief  cause  of  delinquency.  An  examination  of  repeatedly  de- 
linquent boys  and  girls  shows  that  10  per  cent  are  feeble  minded, 
8  per  cent  mentally  dull,  due  primarily  to  bad  physical  condi- 
tions, and  9  per  cent  poor  in  mental  capacity.  Seven  per  cent 
are  epileptic.  Only  about  half  of  the  chronic  delinquents  could 
be  said  to  have  ordinary  ability.  An  examination  of  the  parents 
of  these  children  reveals  that  in  31  per  cent  of  the  cases  mother 
or  father  or  both  are  more  than  moderate  drinkers.  In  one- 
third  of  the  cases  there  is  a  manifest  physical  defect.  About  12 
per  cent  are  prematurely  developed.  Two-thirds  of  the  homes 
of  these  children  are  demoralized  by  alcoholism,  immorality, 
quarreling,  desertion,  poverty  or  a  divided  household. 

Is  there  any  cold  comfort  in  thinking  that  the  race  is  not  al- 
ways to  the  strong? 

The  reports  of  juvenile  and  similar  courts  have  had  a  tendency 
to  minimize  economic  conditions.  When  the  boys'  court  was 
differentiated  from  the  juvenile  court  a  special  psychopathic  in- 
stitute was  established  under  the  direction  of  Doctor  WilUam  J. 
Hickson.  These  boys,  between  seventeen  and  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  are  subjected  when  necessary  to  the  Binet-Simon 
and  other  tests.    Of  245  boys  averaging  nineteen  years  of  age 


158  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

207  proved  by  this  test  to  have  an  average  mental  age  of  twelve 
years.  What  chance  has  a  full  grown  man  with  the  mind  of  a 
young  boy  in  the  competitive  life  of  a  modern  city? 

It  is  not  always  poetic  to  be  only  children  of  a  larger  growth. 

Doctor  Hickson's  investigations  are  emphasizing  the  supreme 
importance  of  industrial  influences.  Neurologists  are  accus- 
tomed to  speak  of  neuropaths  (people  having  unstable  nervous 
systems)  and  psychopaths  (those  having  unstable  mental  sys- 
tems). Doctor  Hickson  calls  attention  to  the  sociopaths  — 
those  economically  and  socially  unfit.  He  says  there  is  a  critical 
economic  or  sociological  period  between  the  age  of  seventeen  and 
twenty-one.  "The  records  of  our  boys  show  that  they  fill  only 
the  simplest  and  humblest  and  poorest  paid  manual  occupations ; 
that  they  rarely  hold  a  position  more  than  a  few  weeks  or  months, 
and  that  the  few  that  do  are  the  first  to  be  laid  off  when  retrench- 
ment or  efficiency  is  brought  into  play." 

The  misused  potentiaUties  of  city  life  are  thrown  into  relief  by 
the  striking  divergences  between  the  Juvenile  Court  Psychopathic 
Institute  and  that  connected  with  the  Municipal  Court.  Ab- 
normahty  cannot  be  so  great  as  it  appears  in  the  cases  of  adoles- 
cent offenders.  It  requires  patience  and  personal  acquaintance 
to  get  facts  from  an  adolescent  youth.  Economic  as  well  as 
home  conditions  aggravate  inherited  qualities. 

Doctor  Healy  says,  "It  practically  always  requires  the  effect 
of  environmental  influences  to  create  a  criminal  out  of  even  a 
mental  defective." 

The  Municipal  Court  of  Boston,  as  a  result  of  legislation  passed 
in  1913,  enjoys  the  services  of  a  trained  alienist.  He  assists  the 
judges  in  determining  the  causes  of  individual  delinquency. 

Los  Angeles  Public  Defender 

"Every  man  is  considered  innocent  until  he  is  found  guilty." 
No  greater  superstition  blocks  justice  in  our  courts.  In  fact  we 
employ  a  prosecuting  attorney  whose  reputation  hinges  upon  the 
number  of  his  convictions.  Every  apprehended  person  is  con- 
sidered guilty  until,  in  opposition  to  the  legal  machinery  of  the 
state,  he  is  proved  innocent.  The  poet  Giovannitti  and  his 
comrades,  Ettor  and  Caruso,  were  deprived  of  freedom  for  eight 
months  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  their  enemies  in  Lawrence. 


JUSTICE  AND    CHARITY  1 59 

Because  they  had  been  arrested  the  state's  attorney  of  Mas- 
sachusetts used  every  strategy  to  prove  their  guilt.  But  the 
judge  charged  the  jury  so  that  acquittal  was  inevitable.  The 
men  were  at  last  given  their  freedom  without  indemnification 
after  great  cost  to  their  comrades,  humiliation  and  suffering  to 
themselves.  Apart  from  justice  to  the  victims,  what  economy 
to  the  state  if  these  men  had  been  presumed  innocent  instead  of 
guilty  !  In  Chicago  Edith  Abbott's  report  to  the  Merriam  Crime 
Committee  of  the  City  Council  showed  that  3  per  cent  of  all 
felony  cases  are  sent  to  the  penitentiary.  The  court  and  jail 
machinery,  costing  8  million  dollars  a  year,  is  maintained 
largely  for  those  discharged  as  innocent  or  fined  for  trivial 
offenses. 

It  is  poor  economy  to  waste  public  money  keeping  innocent 
people  in  jail. 

Los  Angeles  has  led  American  municipalities  ^  in  introducing 
the  Public  Defender.  It  has  been  followed  by  Portland,  Oregon. 
The  latest  charter  of  Los  Angeles  provides  for  an  official  to  take 
the  cases  of  those  who  have  no  adequate  means  to  employ  coun- 
sel. What  lawyers  and  prosecuting  attorneys  would  do  if  the 
profession  of  law  were  on  an  ethical  instead  of  a  business  basis, 
the  Defender  is  doing.  Walter  J.  Wood,  the  PubHc  Defender  of 
Los  Angeles,  says:  "Prosecuting  attorneys  are  daily  pitted 
against  able  lawyers  employed  by  persons  of  means.  .  .  . 
These  prosecutors  necessarily  become  wary,  skillful  in  meeting 
legal  trick  with  legal  trick,  vigorous  in  conduct  of  a  case,  resource- 
ful in  technicality.  It  would  not  be  natural,  were  it  possible, 
for  them  to  change  suddenly  the  habit  thus  formed  when  an 
indigent  defender  appears." 

It  changes  the  atmosphere  of  the  court  when  the  prisoner 
finds  a  friend  in  the  state. 

Four  lawyers  and  two  asistants  handle  over  a  hundred  cases  a 
week  with  justice  as  their  only  goal.  Poor  defendants,  who 
have  had  no  means  of  presenting  their  cases  and  might  be  either 
without  defense  or  the  victims  of  shyster  lawyers,  find  the  court 
entirely  impartial.  The  preponderance  of  influence  of  people 
of  financial  ability  is  removed.  The  cost  to  the  state  of  keeping 
innocent  persons  in  jail  is  relieved.     The  growing  antagonism 

1  The  state  of  Oklahoma  had  the  pioneer  public  defender. 


i6o  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  i-ROGRESS 

of  the  masses  of  the  people  to  courts  of  justice  may  be  neutralized. 
The  mere  existence  of  the  PubUc  Defender  tends  to  the  settle- 
ment of  cases  out  of  court,  thus  meeting  the  criticism  of  a  dis- 
tinguished jurist  that  courts  are  a  necessary  evil. 
Equality  before  the  law  may  become  a  reality. 

Court  Fines  by  Installments 

The  debtor's  court  is  a  hideous  ghost  of  former  days  kept  vivid 
for  us  by  Dickens.  Comfortable  people  who  are  not  accustomed 
to  paying  fines  for  breaches  of  the  law  or  who  pay  them  without 
thought  of  being  offenders  may  be  shocked  to  know  how  far  im- 
prisonment for  debt  still  prevails  in  the  United  States.  The 
wealthy  joy  rider  in  Chicago  pays  his  fine  and  goes  his  way, 
feeUng  that  the  experience  is  worth  the  price  of  admission.  A 
poor  man,  arrested  for  some  insignificant  offense  and  unable  to 
pay  the  fine,  is  usually  committed  to  the  House  of  Correction. 
Of  nearly  fifteen  thousand  Chicago  commitments  in  the  year 
1913  twelve  thousand  or  82  per  cent  were  imprisoned  for  the 
non-payment  of  fines.  According  to  a  bulletin  of  the  Municipal 
Reference  Library,  if  the  city  of  Chicago  had  followed  the  su- 
perior methods  of  some  other  cities  74  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  of  men  and  women  sent  to  the  House  of  Correction 
might  have  been  spared  this  mark  of  Cain.  The  payment  of 
fines  by  installments  instead  of  imprisonment  enables  an  offender 
to  continue  to  care  for  his  family,  does  not  penalize  him  for 
poverty,  compels  him  to  earn  his  fine  by  honest  labor,  directly 
increases  the  pubhc  revenues  while  saving  the  cost  of  maintaining 
prisoners,  and  gives  the  defendant  the  stiffening  influence  of  the 
probation  officer's  aid. 

"The  law  locks  up  the  man  or  woman 

Who  steals  the  goose  from  off  the  common, 
But  lets  the  greater  villain  loose, 
Who  steals  the  common  off  the  goose." 

The  city  court  of  Buffalo  during  the  year  1913  placed  on  pro- 
bation 759  prisoners  on  whom  $12,500  in  fines  had  been  imposed. 
Within  the  year  nearly  $11,000  was  collected  and  the  rest  not  ac- 
counted loss.  Not  only  did  the  city  receive  this  amount  in  funds, 
but  it  saved  over  $6000  that  would  have  been  spent  in  caring  for 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  l6l 

these  offenders  in  the  jail  or  workhouse.  In  addition  to  the  pub- 
lic gains,  the  probationer  benefits  by  the  necessity  of  paying  his 
fine  in  weekly  installments.  This  makes  an  impression  that 
generally  precludes  the  repetition  of  the  offense.  In  many 
cases  it  teaches  offenders  the  value  of  money  and  they  begin 
savings  accounts  when  the  fine  has  been  paid. 

Why  support  a  man  who  might  help  support  the  city  ? 

Indianapolis,  in  an  experience  of  four  years  with  collecting 
fines  on  the  installment  plan,  has  gathered  in  $34,000  from 
3800  offenders.  Eighty-four  per  cent  of  this  number  paid  their 
fines  in  full.  In  seventy-four  cases  the  court  withheld  judgment 
because  of  the  needs  of  the  families  of  the  defendants.  Only 
sixty-nine  failed  to  keep  their  agreement,  involving  re-arrest. 

Two  per  cent  of  those  permitted  to  pay  their  fines  in  install- 
ments in  Kansas  City  have  come  back  for  second  offenses  as  com- 
pared with  25  per  cent  of  other  kinds  of  repeaters. 

The  Juvenile  Court  of  Cleveland  has  employed  this  method 
of  discipHning  the  youthful  gamblers.  They  are  made  to  pay 
a  small  portion  of  the  fine  out  of  their  own  earnings  each  week, 
which  makes  gambling  seem  unprofitable.  The  punishment  is 
much  more  impressive  than  when  parents  are  allowed  to  pay 
the  fine  in  lump.  It  permits  also  the  opportunity  of  supervising 
the  conduct  of  the  youngster.     Very  rarely  is  a  parole  broken. 

The  cities  of  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  are 
also  saving  money  by  saving  character. 

Correctional  Institutions 

One  of  the  difficulties  in  making  the  reorganized  courts  suc- 
cessful is  the  lack  of  institutions  to  which  to  commit  poeple  for 
minor  offenses.  The  classification  of  prisoners  and  the  reserva- 
tion of  penitentiaries  for  mature  offenders  make  necessary  some 
more  humane  and  scientific  method  of  treating  the  other  pris- 
oners. The  average  city  jail  and  workhouse  are  no  better  than 
those  described  in  the  Topeka  Improvement  Survey.  The  capi- 
tal city  of  Kansas  has  been  bold  enough  to  investigate  itself  and 
report  frankly  and  comparatively  on  local  conditions.  The  re- 
port brings  out  the  need  of  farm  work  for  prisoners  and  a  liberal 
parole  system. 

The  goal  of  paternalism  is  to  get  out  from  under. 


1 62  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  Board  of  Parole  of  the  City  of  New  York  was  organized  in 
1905.  At  the  same  time  an  institution  for  youthful  offenders 
was  located  on  Hart's  Island,  to  be  known  as  the  New  York  City 
Reformatory  for  Misdemeanants.  Males  between  the  ages 
of  sixteen  and  thirty,  guilty  of  something  less  than  a  felony, 
were  sent  to  this  reformatory.  The  Board  of  Parole  has  as  its 
chief  function  the  regulation  of  prisoners  paroled  from  this  in- 
stitution. In  spite  of  paroling  forty  young  men  a  month,  the 
reformatory  became  badly  overcrowded.  The  New  Hampton 
Farms  colony  was  established  to  reheve  Hart's  Island  and  the 
younger  boys  were  transferred  in  March,  19 14.  The  boys  are 
chosen  because  of  their  trustworthiness  and  are  put  on  honor. 
They  have  erected  such  buildings  as  were  necessary,  have 
plowed  sixty  acres  of  the  farm,  and  planted  over  forty.  These 
institutions  are  necessary  as  places  of  probation,  but  the  three- 
years'  commitment  can  be  reduced  to  six  months  by  good  be- 
havior. The  purpose  of  the  parole  board  is  to  parole  young  men 
as  speedily  as  possible.  By  six  months  of  good  behavior  under 
parole  the  young  man  may  earn  his  discharge. 

Freedom  has  to  be  earned  to  be  enjoyed  even  by  the  law- 
abiding. 

San  Diego  in  191 2  organized  a  7000-acre  farm  for  delinquents. 
Duluth  conducts  a  farm  of  1000  acres,  to  which  drunks  and 
similar  offenders  are  sent  for  ten  to  twenty  days.  The  so-called 
farm  is  chiefly  of  second-growth  timber  which  is  being  cleared  by 
the  prisoners.  The  men  are  not  only  working  in  the  open  air ; 
the  foremen  are  unarmed  guards. 

Cincinnati  is  engaged  in  humanizing  its  correctional  institu- 
tions. Its  Houses  of  Refuge  for  boys  and  girls  are  now  located 
on  farms.  A  farm  of  390  acres  was  purchased  in  Glendale  in 
1913,  and  "Boyland"  was  established.  Another  farm  of  135 
acres  in  Wyoming,  Ohio,  was  bought  for  the  girls.  The  cottages 
and  a  schoolhouse  are  beautifully  located  overlooking  the  sur- 
rounding country,  including  nineteen  acres  of  woodland  that  is 
a  part  of  the  farm  itself.  The  girls  are  taught  domestic  occupa- 
tions, but  the  inmates  of  the  workhouse  do  the  laundry  work 
for  these  two  houses  and  other  public  institutions.  Thus  the 
women  are  given  occupation  with  the  use  of  modern  conven- 
iences, and,  at  the  same  time,  serve  the  community  profitably. 

Juvenile  correctional  institutions  are  usually  located  in  the 
country. 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  163 

The  Cooley  Farms 

Cleveland  has  gone  beyond  any  other  city  in  the  concentra- 
tion of  its  correctional  institutions  under  one  administration, 
while  keeping  them  in  the  country.  The  Cooley  Farms,  a  tract 
of  2000  acres,  named  in  honor  of  Doctor  Harris  R.  Cooley, 
Tom  Johnson's  original  appointee  to  take  charge  of  Cleveland's 
dependents  and  delinquents,  houses  the  Colony  Farm  for  alms- 
house inmates,  the  Correction  Farm  for  vagrants,  the  Girls' 
and  Boys'  Farms,  and  the  Overlook  Farm  for  tuberculosis  pa- 
tients. The  purpose  of  these  farms  is  to  afford  a  refuge  where 
offenders  may  work  out  their  own  salvation,  living  in  the  open 
air  and  paying  their  own  way. 

Doctor  Cooley  has  humanized  the  almshouse.  The  old 
couples,  who  were  formerly  segregated,  are  now  allowed  to  live 
together  on  this  big  farm  and  work  their  own  little  garden 
patches.  Over  the  door  of  the  poorhouse  is  this  inscription, 
"It  is  better  to  lose  money  than  to  lose  love."  The  petty  of- 
fenders, who  are  sent  to  the  Correction  Farm,  have  been  so  in- 
vigorated that  they  have  organized  a  Brotherhood  of  Prisoners 
which  finds  employment  for  the  released  prisoners.  They 
conduct  a  home  and  accomplish  the  difficult  function  of  employ- 
ment bureau  for  those  who  would  otherwise  be  Ishmaels. 

The  Cooley  Farms  are  moral  sanatoriums. 

Socializing  Charity 

The  question  is  often  seriously  asked,  "Does  charity  do  more 
harm  than  good?"  Certainly  indiscriminate  charity  is  both  a 
means  of  making  parasites  and  a  sop  to  generous  people,  bribing 
them  to  suspend  for  the  time  their  social  responsibilities.  Vol- 
untary gifts  may  put  the  burdens  of  charity  where  they  can  most 
easily  be  borne,  but  caring  for  the  poor  by  taxation  develops  the 
sense  of  social  responsibiUty  within  the  community. 

The  new  era  in  public  charity  is  marked  by  the  assumption  of 
an  increasing  number  of  functions  by  the  public  authorities  tha>, 
formerly  were  in  private  hands  and  the  extension  of  welfare 
work  beyond  the  former  dreaxns  of  charity  workers.  City  and 
county  charities  are  still  frequently^  chaotic,  but  in  many  com- 
munities a  large  amount  of  social  wc  -k  is  done  for  those  who  are 


1 64  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

not  absolutely  destitute  and  is  done  with  the  purpose  of  restor- 
ing people  to  effective  citizenship. 

The  PubUc  Welfare  Department  is  no  longer  Pickwickian  in 
all  cities. 

The  Municipal  Charities  Commission  of  Los  Angeles  is  de- 
signed to  coordinate  all  private  charities  under  public  super- 
vision. Except  for  the  organization  of  a  municipal  employment 
bureau,  its  functions  are  distinctly  charitable.  It  supervises 
the  charities  of  the  city,  indorsing  desirable  ones,  investigates 
the  problems  of  poverty,  and  is  authorized  to  administer  funds 
for  charitable  purposes.  To  effect  cooperation  between  the 
municipal  body  and  private  charities  a  Council  of  Social  Agen- 
cies has  been  organized.  It  is  governed  by  a  board  of  eighteen 
trustees,  one-sixth  of  whom  are  chosen  by  the  Municipal  Chari- 
ties Commission. 

Organized  charity  was  an  innovation  to  the  last  generation ; 
it  is  now  belated. 

The  Department  of  Charities  and  Correction  of  Cincinnati 
is  an  advance  on  the  Los  Angeles  Municipal  Charities  Commis- 
sion. Under  the  superintendency  of  Doctor  Otto  P.  Geier 
there  has  been  developed  a  threefold  division  of  the  administra- 
tion of  charitable  effort :  first,  the  supervision  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  public  institutions ;  second,  the  supervision  of  social 
investigation  and  reHef ;  third,  the  control  of  the  medical  bureau. 
The  second  department  has  developed  elaborate  functions.  It 
has  addec  cO  the  conventional  charitable  labors  a  widows'  pen- 
sion, an  agitation  against  loan  sharks,  the  care  of  paroles  from  the 
workhouse,  social  and  constructive  service  for  the  Municipal 
Court,  and  municipal  surveys.  The  widows'  pensions  grew 
out  of  the  desire  to  protect  dependent  from  delinquent  children. 
The  demoralization  of  children  in  the  House  of  Refuge  has  been 
relieved  by  helping  the  mothers  to  keep  their  homes.  The 
Department  of  Charities  and  Correction  has  relieved  Cincin- 
nati of  the  need  of  surveys,  such  as  other  cities  have  enjoyed  at 

he  hands  of  private  organizations,     /in  exhaustive  investigation 

was  made  of  the  conditions  of  U^/in-^  of  the  city's  institutional 

population.     This  has  been  followed  by  a  publicity  campaign 

to  arouse  the  citizens  to  a  knowledge  of  their  local  conditions. 

The  municipality  has  mobilized  the  good  Samaritans. 

The  Cleveland  Department  of  Public  Welfare  has  been  or- 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  165 

ganized  under  a  new  charter  on  a  thoroughly  scientific  basis.^ 
It  has  incorporated  existing  organizations  and  added  new  ones, 
but  has  an  insufficient  appropriation  for  adequate  work.  The 
Division  of  Health  is  continuing  the  services  for  which  Cleve- 
land is  famous.  The  Division  of  Recreation  conducted  a  munici- 
pal orchestra  in  1914.  The  Division  of  Publicity  and  Research 
is  trying  to  live  up  to  its  title.  A  lecture  bureau  is  being  con- 
ducted to  instruct  citizens  of  Cleveland  regarding  health,  recrea- 
tion, civics,  charities  and  corrections,  labor  and  immigration. 
The  bureau  attempts  to  reach  the  people  also  through  exhibits 
and  by  newspaper  publicity. 

Public  utility  corporations  have  learned  to  advertise.  Why 
should  not  municipal  corporations? 

Dayton  Department  of  Public  Welfare 

The  city  of  Dayton  has  established  a  Department  of  Public 
Welfare  under  its  city  manager.  In  the  new  charter  of  Ja.uary 
I,  1914,  the  Department  issues  a  statement  of  its  functions,  in 
which  it  says : 

This  charter  was  written  by  those  who  believe  that  human  nature,  under 
proper  environment  and  with  proper  direction  and  encouragement  is  capable 
of  far  greater  efficiency  and  service  and  happiness  than  has  ever  yet  been 
attained  in  human  experience.  It  is  believed  that  it  is  the  duty  of  a  munic- 
ipality to  concern  itself  with  the  special  problems  of  human  life  and  com- 
munity efficiency  and  betterment,  just  as  well  as  with  questions  of  safety, 
transportation  facilities,  good  streets,  etc.  The  result  of  such  an  effort  on 
the  part  of  a  municipality,  if  honestly  and  efficiently  made,  cannoi  Hut  be 
fruitful  of  much  good  to  all  the  people  of  the  city,  both  in  respect  to  he  rais- 
ing of  the  standard  of  human  efficiency,  and  the  increase  of  community 
patriotism. 

The  Division  of  Health  enforces  the  appropriate  laws, 
gathers  vital  statistics,  has  established  six  clinics  a  week  —  three 
baby  clinics,  two  tuberculosis  clinics,  and  one  general  clinic,  — 
supports  a  corps  of  nurses,  and  cooperates  with  all  the  other 
private  organizations  that  supply  nurses.  The  Division  of  Rec- 
reation administers  the  playgrounds  in  the  parks  and  by  co- 
operation with  other  organizations  distributes  playground  facili- 
ties where  needed.     An  Advisory  Recreation  Board  has  been 

^  See  Appendix  3. 


1 66  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

created,  composed  of  fifteen  representatives  of  the  Department 
of  Public  Welfare,  the  Public  Schools,  and  the  Dayton  Play- 
grounds and  Gardens  Association.  In  19 14  the  pubhc  schools 
maintained  eight  playgrounds  in  their  school  yards  ;  the  city 
maintained  six  playgrounds ;  and  the  Playgrounds  and  Gardens 
Association  twelve,  each  organization  paying  the  supervisor  of 
its  playgrounds.  The  attendance  for  ten  weeks  was  200,000. 
The  Division  also  provided  two  life-savers,  one  beach  guard,  and 
one  swimming  instructor  at  the  bathing  beach  on  Island  Park. 
The  other  park  functions  are  in  charge  of  the  Division  of  Parks. 

The  Division  of  Corrections  has  established  a  municipal  lodg- 
ing house  for  men  and  its  equivalent  in  the  "Door  of  Hope"  for 
women.  It  has  transformed  the  workhouse,  eliminating  con- 
tract labor  and  employing  men  on  public  works,  including  work 
on  parks,  levees,  streets,  municipal  buildings,  and  workhouse 
gardens.  The  entire  installation  of  the  municipal  lodging  house 
was  done  by  workhouse  inmates.  The  food  of  the  police  station 
is  prepared  by  them.  It  is  self-supporting.  There  are  also 
Divisions  of  Poor  Relief  and  Municipal  Employment.  The 
Public  Welfare  Department  has  followed  the  example  of  Kansas 
City  in  organizing  a  Division  of  Legal  Aid,  which  takes  care  of 
seventy-two  cases  a  month.  In  1914  of  those  aided  535  were 
white  Americans,  96  negroes,  and  93  foreign  born. 

A  fund  of  $1875  has  been  secured  to  make  a  survey  of  Dayton. 

Kansas  City  Board  of  Public  Welfare 

There  has  been  organized  in  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  under  one 
general  superintendent,  Mr.  L.  A.  Halbert,  a  Board  of  Public 
Welfare.^  This  board  is  one  of  the  six  administrative  boards  of 
the  city,  having  equal  standing  with  the  Civil  Service  Board, 
Health  Board,  Park  Board,  Pubhc  Works  Board,  and  Fire  and 
Water  Board.  It  consists  of  five  members  serving  for  three  years 
each.     The  original  members  were  appointed  by  the  mayor,  but 

>  The  Kansas  City  Board  of  Public  Welfare  unites  a  child  welfare  department, 
factory  inspection,  free  legal  aid,  loan  agency,  municipal  farm,  women's  reforma- 
tories, recreation  department  (including  social  centers,  dance  supervision,  motion- 
picture  censorship,  and  recreation  survey),  employment  agency,  social  service 
(which  comprehends  family  and  hospital  visitation),  and  a  research  bureau.  The 
last-named  effects  cooperation  between  the  city  and  the  private  philanthropic  organ- 
izations, including  confidential  reports  on  all  the  private  charities. 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  167 

the  members  nominate  their  successors.  This  self -perpetuating 
plan  was  designed  to  keep  the  board  free  from  partisan  pohtics 
and  brought  a  great  deal  of  pressure  upon  it  in  the  first  year  be- 
cause the  politicians  could  not  endure  so  independent  an  organi- 
zation. When  the  appropriation  proved  to  be  insufficient,  the 
employees  of  the  board  volunteered  to  accept  a  reduction  of 
25  per  cent  in  their  salaries  during  the  last  two  and  a  half  months 
of  the  year.  The  board  wisely  established  the  precedent  of 
asking  the  Federated  Charities  to  make  nominations  to  vacancies. 
All  the  subordinates  are  chosen  by  civil  service  examinations. 

Social  welfare  ranks  in  the  same  category  with  the  protection 
of  property  from  fire  in  Kansas  City. 

The  Board  of  Public  Welfare  aims  to  overcome  one  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  in  the  American  form  of  government.  All 
of  our  administrative  agencies  suffer  by  twilight  zones.  Public 
and  private  endeavor  are  not  properly  coordinated.  One  of 
the  functions  of  the  Board  of  Pubhc  Welfare  is  the  indorsement 
of  worthy  charities,  involving  the  education  of  the  public  to  ap- 
preciate and  to  demand  efficiency  in  charity  administration. 

The  twilight  zone  between  public  and  private  recreation  is  also 
happily  covered  by  the  Board  of  Public  Welfare.  It  is  develop- 
ing social  centers  in  the  schools  in  competition  with  commercial 
recreation.  At  the  same  time  it  censors  motion-picture  films 
and  supervises  private  dance  halls.  Without  obtrusive  chaper- 
onage  certain  regulations  are  enforced  that  automatically  cut 
out  the  chief  abuses  of  private  dance  halls.  For  example,  man- 
agers are  prohibited  from  permitting  patrons  to  leave  the  hall 
and  return  or  to  bring  bottles  of  liquor  with  them,  to  be  shared 
with  their  friends  in  the  toilet  rooms.  Thus  there  are  virtually 
eliminated  from  the  dance  hall  youn^  women  who  come  merely  to 
meet  men  and  make  repeated  visits  for  this  purpose  each  evening. 
Girls  under  sixteen  are  not  admitted  unless  accompanied  by 
father,  mother  or  guardian.  The  department  sends  representa- 
tives to  homes  that  ignore  this  regulation,  finally  appealing  to 
the  juvenile  court  if  necessary. 

Legislation  may  not  make  human  beings  walk  straight  but  it 
may  hamstring  the  devil. 

The  first  year  of  the  operation  of  the  Board  of  Public  Welfare 
was  spent  in  bringing  together  the  various  charitable  and  social 
agencies  of  the  city  and  fighting  unfriendly  poUticians.     In  the 


1 68  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

second  year  great  advances  were  made  because  of  the  successful 
correlation  of  activities  that  we  have  been  accustomed  to  regard  as 
quite  unrelated.  Over  4500  people  who  would  have  been  helpless 
in  the  hands  of  careless  or  grasping  landlords  were  secured  better 
homes  by  the  investigations  of  the  housing  inspectors.  The  fac- 
tory inspection  department  of  the  board  has  confronted  the  em- 
ployers of  Kansas  City  with  693  orders,  causing  the  work  places 
of  40,000  men  and  women  to  be  improved.  Thirty-one  thou- 
sand men  who  would  have  been  a  burden  on  private  charity  and 
a  means  of  keeping  industrial  conditions  unsettled  were  found 
jobs  by  the  employment  bureau.  Three  thousand  families  — 
not  pecuniarily  destitute,  but  lacking  in  the  means  of  fellowship 
—  have  been  served  by  the  unique  Social  Service  Department. 

The  representatives  of  the  public  have  entered  into  human 
relations  hitherto  expressed  by  church  or  social  settlement 
workers. 

Two  thousand  prisoners  in  19 13  had  their  sentences  curtailed 
and,  under  the  friendly  and  stimulating  influence  of  a  parole 
system,  have  been  given  a  chance  to  justify  their  freedom.  Fifty 
thousand  people  satisfied  their  gregarious  instinct  by  attending 
social  center  meetings  promoted  by  the  board.  Five  hundred 
thousand  visited  2600  public  dances  under  the  chaperonage  of 
the  Board  of  Public  Welfare  inspectors.  Twenty-five  thousand 
daily  attendants  at  the  motion-picture  theaters  have  been  spared 
the  vulgar  and  brutal  films  of  earlier  days.  The  Welfare  Loan 
Agency  has  tided  1 500  people  over  a  period  of  temporary  distress 
to  economic  stabiUty.^  The  Legal  Aid  Bureau  has  put  legal 
talent  at  the  disposal  of  six  thousand  people  who  have  been  ac- 
customed to  regard  the  courts  as  beyond  their  reach. 

The  city  becomes  a  big  brother  to  a  large  family. 

Whatever  social  benefits  may  be  achieved,  even  public  charity 
must  bear  the  test  of  business  standards.  The  municipal  farm 
would  justify  its  existence  if  it  returned  men  to  society  more 
competent  to  maintain  their  economic  independence.  The  farm 
did  not  stop  here,  but  was  so  well  managed  that  the  prisoners 
in  one  year  made  improvements  to  the  amount  of  $2630  beyond 
the  outlay.     The  women  at  the  reformatory  were  able  to  sell 

'In  igi4  twelve  thousand  separate  loans  were  made,  amounting  to  $200,000  as 
compared  with  $140,000  the  year  before.  The  agency  paid  expenses  and  6  per 
cent  on  the  capital. 


JUSTICE   AND   CHARITY  1 69 

$5000  worth  of  work.  The  prisoners  under  the  supervision  of 
the  parole  department,  who  would  have  remained  a  burden  to 
the  community  if  kept  in  prison,  were  set  to  work  that  enabled 
them  to  earn  $280,000.  The  board  spent  the  modest  sum  of 
$125  encouraging  167  gardens  in  vacant  lots  and  the  people's 
harvest  from  the  soil  was  worth  to  them  $5000.  A  little  over 
$5000  was  spent  by  the  Employment  Bureau  in  securing  jobs 
that  paid  over  $34,000  for  the  first  day's  work  of  the  applicants. 
When  one  begins  to  measure  these  trifling  public  expenditures 
in  terms  of  social  gain  the  dividends  are  incredible. 

It  is  a  twentieth-century  achievement  to  make  a  Public  Wel- 
fare Bureau  pay. 

The  Widows'  Pension  Bureau  of  San  Francisco 

Widows'  pensions  are  said  to  be  paid  now  in  thirty-two  Ameri- 
can cities  of  the  first  class.'  The  act  authorizing  the  Widows' 
Pension  Bureau  in  San  Francisco  was  passed  by  the  legislature  in 
1913.  The  funds  are  paid  partly  by  the  state  and  partly  by  the 
city.  A  widow  who  is  endeavoring  to  maintain  her  half-orphan 
children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  in  her  own  home  may  receive 
a  pension  to  supplement  her  income  so  that  she  may  have  the 
equivalent  of  a  Hving  wage.^  In  case  of  desertion  or  when  the 
husband  is  in  a  state  penitentiary,  the  child  may  be  declared  a 
half-orphan  by  the  Juvenile  Court.  The  state  undertakes  to 
pay  $6.25  per  month  for  each  needy  half-orphan  under  fourteen 
and  the  city  supplements  this  amount  to  give  the  widow  the 
necessary  income.  A  family  of  three  or  less  is  supposed  to  need 
$15  per  capita.  The  widow  must  not  have  property  valued  at 
more  than  $1000.  An  estimate  is  made  of  the  income  derived 
by  the  widow  and  other  members  of  the  family  and  this  is  supple- 
mented to  meet  the  estimated  needs. 

The  family  is  the  unit  for  the  living  wage  in  San  Francisco. 

The  money  is  paid  through  the  Associated  Charities,  the  Cath- 
olic Humane  Bureau  and  the  Eureka  Benevolent  Society  be- 
cause these  organizations  had  done  similar  work  through  the 
commitment  of  families  to  their  care  by  the  Juvenile  Court  before 

'  Appendix  4. 

'  In  New  York  City  the  father  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  Statei  and 
a  resident  of  the  state  at  the  time  of  his  death. 


lyo  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

the  establishment  of  the  Widows'  Pension  Bureau.  On  January 
I,  191 5,  there  were  775  names  on  file,  over  300  of  whom  were  re- 
ceiving aid,  involving  723  children  under  the  age  of  fourteen. 
The  expenses  for  the  year  were  within  the  appropriation  of 
$107,000.  The  pension  is  conditioned  upon  the  abihty  of  the 
mother  to  take  adequate  care  of  the  children.  Otherwise,  they 
are  sent  to  institutions.  The  mother  is  not  permitted  to  take 
men  roomers  or  boarders,  but  must  give  her  attention  to  the 
children. 

The  fatherless  and  the  widows  are  visited  in  their  affliction. 

The  pension  enables  the  city  to  inspect  conditions  of  living 
of  needy  widows  through  the  aid  of  the  social  service  visitor. 
The  conditions  of  the  neighborhood  are  recorded,  the  available 
church  organizations,  schools,  playgrounds  and  cUnics  are  noted, 
and  the  health  of  the  mother  and  the  children  is  observed. 
It  is  discovered  that  with  the  reUef  from  the  strain  of  poverty 
there  is  at  once  a  nervous  and  physical  improvement.  In  many 
cases  recommendations  have  been  made  to  increase  the  pensions ; 
the  family  has  thus  been  enabled  to  have  a  higher  standard  of 
living  and  a  better  house. 

The  widow's  pension  is  not  regarded  as  a  charity,  but  as  a  con- 
tribution of  the  state  to  its  most  important  social  servant. 

New  York  Municipal  Lodging  House 

Every  person  without  a  roof  in  Greater  New  York  is  entitled 
to  shelter  at  the  Municipal  Lodging  House.  The  main  building, 
a  structure  of  six  stories  costing  $400,000,  accommodates  about 
one  hundred  women  and  one  thousand  men.  The  women's 
department  is  seldom  fiUed.  The  demand  on  it  is  greater  in  the 
summer  when  the  wives  are  deserted  by  their  nomad  husbands. 
Often  husbands  and  wives  are  sheltered  at  the  same  time  at  the 
two  departments,  the  children  as  usual  being  cared  for  with  the 
mothers.  There  is  no  creche,  so  only  the  hopelessly  destitute 
mothers  apply,  remaining  with  their  children  until  fitting  work 
is  offered. 

It  is  one  of  our  greatest  social  paradoxes  that  while  women 
have  homes  more  commonly  than  men  do,  all  but  the  least  at- 
tractive can  find  occupation  in  the  street. 

In  each  department  the  applicants  who  come  at  the  rush  hours 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  17I 

of  early  evening  form  in  lines,  get  a  check  for  their  clothing,  go 
to  their  respective  departments  and  eat  supper  of  soup,  bread 
and  tea.  After  the  work  involved  is  done,  they  go  to  the  compul- 
sory bath.  Each  one  is  given  a  clean  nightgown,  and  their 
clothes  are  taken,  with  check  attached,  to  be  disinfected  and  re- 
turned in  the  morning.  The  men's  clothes  are  hung  on  racks, 
but  the  women's  are  bundled  into  a  net,  from  which  they  come 
forth  in  a  very  mussed  condition.  The  lodgers  all  retire  early, 
but  not  necessarily  to  sleep.  There  are  babies  in  the  women's 
department. 

A  doctor  is  on  duty  all  night. 

Each  lodger  is  assigned  a  good  canvas  cot  on  an  iron  frame- 
work, with  blankets,  clean  sheets  and  pillow  cases,  in  a  dormi- 
tory with  a  capacity  of  fifty  women  or  two  hundred  men.  The 
overflow  from  the  men's  department  is  cared  for  normally  at  the 
neighboring  recreation  pier,  fitted  up  in  1913  to  accommodate 
1200  men.  It  is  glassed  in,  warmed  by  twenty  stoves  and  for 
sleeping  purposes  is  as  good  as  the  lodging  house.  Although 
improvised,  it  is  one  of  the  economical  ventures  credited  to 
modern  municipal  administration.  The  Department  of  Docks 
furnished  this  recreation  pier  at  the  foot  of  East  Twenty-fourth 
Street,  the  Department  of  Charities  inclosed  it  and  equipped 
it  with  cots  and  blankets,  the  Fire  Department  heated  it  with 
stoves,  the  PoUce  Department  assigned  special  officers  to  protect 
the  lodgers  from  theft  and  the  Street  Cleaning  Department 
provided  work  collecting  garbage  and  shoveling  snow.  On 
exceptional  nights  men  are  also  taken  to  a  more  roughly  impro- 
vised shelter  in  an  old  medical  school  building. 

Most  ten-  and  fifteen-cent  lodging  houses  are  hygienically  in- 
ferior to  the  free  New  York  Municipal  Lodging  House. 

Each  person  is  supposed  to  do  a  stint  of  work  in  return  for  sup- 
per, lodging  and  breakfast.  The  women  do  more  or  less  super- 
ficial domestic  work  before  they  can  leave  the  house.  The  men 
engage  in  a  variety  of  occupations  useful  to  the  city.  All  the 
important  functions  of  housekeeping,  such  as  cooking,  sewing, 
laundering,  are  done  by  men.  The  kitchen,  laundry,  and  tailor 
shop  are  furnished  with  modern  appliances.  So  far  as  possible, 
everything  needed  is  made  on  the  premises.  After  five  hours 
of  work  in  the  house  or  on  the  street  the  men  have  quaUfied  for 
two  nights'  lodgings,  leaving  the  remaining  day  and  a  half  free 


172  AMERICAN  MUNICIP.\L  PROGRESS 

to  search  for  permanent  work.  The  house  is  kept  scrupulously 
clean  and  the  inmates  distinctly  benefit  by  a  few  nights'  retreat. 
Each  lodger  undergoes  a  medical  examination,  and  in  case  of 
disease,  is  sent  to  the  hospital.     Doubtful  cases  are  segregated. 

If  the  down-and-outs  scorn  the  Municipal  Lodging  House, 
there  are  still  the  Hotel  de  Gink  and  the  subway. 

Chicago,  St.  Louis  and  Boston  conduct  makeshift  lodging 
houses,  the  best  commendation  of  which  is  that  they  give  better 
accommodations  than  the  cells  and  floors  of  police  stations.^ 
Chicago  is  provided  with  187  beds  for  men,  and  has  frequently 
accommodated  4000  over  night :  two  under  each  bed,  heads  out, 
and  two  between  each  two  beds,  with  a  bedless  annex  inlaid  with 
them.  Chicago  appropriated  $100,000  for  a  new  building  in 
1 91 3.  The  cellar  has  been  excavated.  There  is  consequently 
a  large  opening  for  a  municipal  lodging  house  in  Chicago. 

Denver  has  rented  eleven  apartments  of  three  rooms  each  to 
provide  a  temporary  home  for  evicted  and  other  homeless  fami- 
hes.  About  half  of  the  apartments  are  rented  to  provide  rev- 
enue for  taking  care  of  the  homeless. 

Municipal  Employment  Bureaus 

There  is  no  scientific  provision  for  unemployment  in  the  United 
States.  The  Federal  Government  has  taken  the  fij-st  steps 
toward  universal  employment  bureaus  through  post  offices.  Sev- 
eral states  have  for  years  conducted  state  employment  agencies. 
Cities  usually  undertake  to  find  work  for  the  unemployed  in  time 
of  industrial  depression,  when  the  task  is  most  difficult  and  there 
are  no  adequate  faciUties  at  hand.  The  Chicago  Lodging  House 
in  the  winter  of  1913-14  was  able  to  offer  its  lodgers  work  for  the 
city,  cleaning  bathing  beaches,  vacant  lots,  back  yards,  and 
basement  areas.  When  the  weather  was  not  too  inclement,  the 
men  were  sent  to  the  places  where  they  were  needed,  having  been 
given  their  lunch  and  street  car  tickets.  At  the  end  of  the  day's 
work  the  ward  superintendent  gave  each  man  a  ticket  entitling 
him  to  another  lodging.  Many  of  the  men  were  not  only  physi- 
cally incapable  of  work,  but  insufficiently  clad.  There  was  no 
provision  to  clothe  them.     The  following  year  the  Preferential 

*  For  other  cities  maintaining  municipal  lodging  houses  see  Appendix  5. 


New  York  City  Municipal  LoDcixr,  House. 
Christmas  dinner  applicants  —  3000  served. 


MuNiciP.\L  Lodging  Housk  Anne.x,  New  York  City. 
24th  Street  Recreation  Pier  —  iioo  beds. 


JUSTICE  AND   CHARITY  1 73 

Employment  System  was  introduced.  The  Employment  Bu- 
reau of  the  Department  of  Public  Welfare  investigated  appli- 
cants and  gave  preferential  cards  to  heads  of  families  and  resi- 
dents of  Chicago.  Municipal  and  industrial  employment  was 
opened  up  by  a  flood  of  letters  and  spectacular  |)ublicity.  The 
Mayor's  Industrial  Commission  indorsed  and  aided  the  effort. 
One  of  the  letters  addressed  to  householders  was  headed : 

DO  IT  NOW 

Give  a  Job. 

175,000  men  out  of  work.  Many  suffering  in  a  land  of  plenty. 
Think  of  some  way  to  help.  Think  hard.  Think  now.  For  the 
honor  of  Chicago. 

WE  WILL 

This  work  was  supplemented  by  a  Farm  Employment  Bureau, 
sending  out  10,000  letters  and  advertising  in  the  agricultural 
journals.     City  farming  on  vacant  lands  was  also  promoted. 

The  mayors  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York  appointed  com- 
mittees to  spend  the  municipal  appropriations  for  unemploy- 
ment and  destitution  in  the  winter  of  1914-15. 

Many  cities  have  expedited  their  public  works  in  order  to  ab- 
sorb the  unemployed.  In  the  very  mild  winter  of  191 3-14 
Duluth  tried  to  take  care  of  its  lumbermen  by  promoting  munici- 
pal sewer  jobs,  and  especially  by  the  removal  of  a  hill  of  rock 
that  was  an  obstacle  to  street  extension.  Kansas  City  provides 
winter  work  at  its  municipal  quarry,  giving  the  preference  to 
married  men.  Boston  was  favored  by  a  gift  of  $10,000  by  an 
octogenarian  citizen,  Mr.  G.  A.  Gardner.  With  this  money  the 
mayor  hastened  the  work  upon  the  new  esplanade  and  strand- 
way  of  Marine  Park.  This  gave  employment  not  only  to  able- 
bodied  men,  who  could  handle  a  pick,  but  to  the  feeble,  to  whom 
the  rake  if  not  "the  grasshopper  is  a  burden."  All  were  paid 
$2.50  a  day.  Lynn  decided  to  clear  out  the  last  vestiges  of  gypsy 
and  browntail  moths  from  its  2000-acre  municipal  forest.  Two 
hundred  men  were  employed  by  an  appropriation  of  $10,000. 
When  this  was  exhausted  a  "  buy-a-cord-of-wood "  campaign 
was  begun  to  touch  private  pockets. 

The  municipal  woodyard  of  Independence,  Kansas,  enables 
that  city  to  handle  the  timber  in  its  city  park.     It  cuts  poles  for 


174  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

rural  telephone  lines,  railway  ties,  fence  posts  and  cordwood, 
paying  the  workers  $1.25  a  day. 

The  rapid  growth  of  Los  Angeles  caused  the  Municipal  Chari- 
ties Commission  to  estabUsh  a  free  employment  bureau.  This 
opened  January,  1914,  with  a  department  for  each  sex.  Two 
oflBces  take  care  of  the  men  and  women  at  appropriate  places. 
The  endeavor  is  to  furnish  both  temporary  and  permanent  work, 
the  former  being  provided  until  the  latter  is  secured.  Incom- 
petents are  sent  to  the  United  Charities.  The  applicants  were 
divided  into  four  groups :  heads  of  famiUes,  employed  where 
possible  within  the  city  limits  at  $2.cx>  for  an  eight-hour  day; 
unmarried  unemployed  American  citizens,  to  whom  three  meals 
and  lodging  were  furnished  for  four  hours  of  work ;  aliens,  chiefly 
Mexicans,  discharged  by  the  railroads;  and  the  shiftless,  who 
were  turned  over  to  the  pohce  department.  Temporary  ar- 
rangements were  made  during  the  winter  months  in  two  camps, 
established  in  a  city  park,  a  separate  camp  being  maintained  for 
Mexicans  because  of  the  great  difference  in  diet.  Park  work 
thus  took  care  of  nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty  Mexicans  and 
over  eight  hundred  whites.  The  process  of  elimination  pursued 
in  Los  Angeles  has  almost  reached  the  standard  that  "he  who  will 
not  work,  neither  shall  he  eat." 

Nineteen  cities  had  established  municipal  employment  agen- 
cies in  1914. 

Many  cities  put  restrictions  upon  public  employment  in  the 
endeavor  to  discriminate  in  favor  of  residents  or  citizens.  The 
city  of  Oakland,  California,  forbids  the  employment  of  any 
workmen  except  those  residing  in  the  city  of  Oakland,  or  the 
use  of  any  materials  except  those  produced  or  manufactured  in 
the  state  of  California,  if  such  are  obtainable.  Milwaukee 
provides  that  the  city  laborers  shall  not  only  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  but  residents  of  Milwaukee  for  three  years. 
Public  sentiment  in  New  York  City  was  aroused  in  1915  in  sup- 
port of  the  law  to  exclude  aliens  from  public  works. 

A  city  may  protect  itself  against  the  influx  of  non-residents. 
It  is  the  function  of  the  nation  to  regulate  alien  labor. 

The  inadequacy  of  private  employment  bureaus  or  their  un- 
scrupulous methods  have  compelled  the  organization  of  state 
free  employment  agencies.  Illinois  and  Massachusetts  have  led 
in  the  organization  of  employment  offices.     The  first  state  em- 


JUSTICE   AND    CHARITY  175 

ployment  agency  in  Chicago  was  organized  in  1899.  They 
are  no  nearer  grappHng  with  the  problem  of  unemployment  than 
when  originally  organized.  The  Boston  office  of  the  Massachu- 
setts free  employment  system  finds  jobs  for  about  twenty  thou- 
sand applicants  a  year,  ranging  from  a  scrub  woman  to  a  foundry 
superintendent. 

The  out-of-work  is  no  longer  confused  with  the  "down-and- 
out"! 

The  city  of  Superior  established  a  municipal  employment 
office  in  1899.  A  commission  of  three  members,  one  from  the 
city  council,  one  from  the  trades  and  labor  assembly,  and  one 
from  the  commercial  club,  opened  an  office  in  the  City  Hall. 
The  business  was  conducted  by  the  clerk  of  the  Board  of  Public 
Works.  This  office  was  turned  over  to  the  state  when  the  latter 
organized  its  system  in  1901.  Agencies  were  also  opened  in 
Milwaukee,  Oshkosh  and  La  Crosse.  The  Industrial  Commis- 
sion assumed  charge  of  these  in  191 1.  The  cities  provide  of- 
fice space,  heat,  light,  telephone  and  janitor  service.  The  Indus- 
trial Commission  pays  all  the  administrative  expenses.^  These 
offices  secured  over  twenty-five  thousand  positions  in  1913-14, 
about  one-third  of  which  were  short  jobs.  The  cost  per  position 
secured  in  1913  was  forty-three  cents.  The  state  paid  twenty- 
seven  cents  of  this,  and  the  city  and  county  sixteen  cents  (the 
city  paying  three-fifths  and  the  county  two-fifths).  The  fact 
that  there  were  twice  as  many  applications  for  work  and  nearly 
twice  as  many  for  help  as  there  were  positions  filled  would  indi- 
cate the  need  of  a  vocational  bureau  to  cooperate  with  the  em- 
ployment bureau.  A  monthly  labor  market  bulletin  is  issued, 
indicating  the  supply  and  demand,  whether  the  occupations  are 
skilled  or  unskilled,  temporary  or  permanent.  These  reports 
have,  unfortunately,  not  yet  made  their  way  into  the  newspapers 
alongside  of  the  stock  reports. 

It  is  absurd  that  stocks  and  bonds  should  be  reported  daily 
and  jobs  decennially. 

The  Division  of  Employment  of  the  Cleveland  Department  of 
Public  Welfare  not  only  tries  to  deal  with  unemployment,  but 
includes  a  Vocational  Guidance  Bureau  and  a  city  Immigration 

1  The  agreement  between  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Wisconsin,  the  Common 
Council  of  the  city  of  Milwaukee  and  the  Board  o'  Supervisors  of  the  County  of 
Milwaukee  appears  in  Appendix  6. 


176  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Bureau.  An  attempt  is  made  to  discover  the  special  talents  of 
minors.  The  division  also  tries  to  assist  immigrants  in  reaching 
their^destination  and  to  assist  them  to  prepare  themselves  for 
naturahzation  by  cooperation  with  the  pubhc  night  schools. 
"Citizenship  receptions"  are  held  at  the  time  of  the  awarding  of 
naturalization  papers. 

No  sounder  basis  of  citizenship  could  be  laid  than  the  guarantee 
that  every  citizen  could  honorably  pay  his  way.  This  is  the 
demand  of  Public  Welfare. 


CHAPTER  X 
INDOOR  EDUCATION 

Modern  methods  of  education  are  bringing  about  a  closer  rela- 
tion between  the  home,  the  school  and  industry.  The  progres- 
sive public  school  is  to  be  found  in  many  cities  of  the  country, 
but  the  best  commentary  on  contemporary  education  is  that 
standards  still  fall  short  of  those  accepted  by  the  leading  modern 
teachers.  The  ideal  school  will  have  classes  small  enough 
to  permit  of  individual  instruction,  yet  large  enough  to  be  demo- 
cratic ;  will  adapt  the  work  of  the  earlier  years  to  the  natural 
experiences  of  the  child  gained  before  entering  the  school,  and 
the  work  of  the  later  years  toward  fitting  him  for  occupation  and 
for  citizenship.  Our  public  school  system  fails  at  the  beginning 
by  having  too  few  teachers  and  too  large  classes,  and  at  the  end 
by  leaving  a  gap  between  the  school  and  occupation.  Hopeful 
exceptions  are,  in  the  first  instance,  the  better  kindergartens 
and  grades  where  the  kindergarten  methods  have  persisted ; 
in  the  second  instance,  the  vocational  schools  of  to-day,  which 
are  successful  in  preparing  pupils  for  occupations. 

The  problem  of  the  pedagog  and  of  the  school  board  is  to  make 
both  ends  meet. 

Kindergartens 

One  of  the  first  departures  from  the  Gradgrind  type  of  school, 
satirized  by  Dickens  in  "Hard  Times,"  was  the  kindergarten. 
It  began  to  leaven  the  American  school  system  over  half  a  cen- 
tury ago  when  Miss  Elizabeth  Peabody  introduced  it  into  Boston. 
For  a  quarter  of  a  century  voluntary  organizations  experimented 
with  the  kindergarten  in  eastern  cities.  In  1887  the  kindergar- 
ten became  a  part  of  the  public  school  system  of  the  city  of  Phil- 
adelphia. The  system  has  been  extended  in  Boston  until  the 
one  public  kindergarten  of  iSSS  has  grown  to  124  in  1914. 

Lexington,  Kentucky,  followed  up  its  pioneer  work  in  public 
N  177 


178  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

kindergartens  by  introducing  the  Montessori  plan.  It  is  used 
now  to  make  the  adjustment  between  the  kindergarten  and  the 
first  primary  grade.  The  Montessori  method  has  been  em- 
ployed in  the  Andrews  School  in  the  South  End  of  Boston  under 
a  teacher  prepared  by  Madame  Montessori.  The  children,  three 
and  four  years  of  age,  not  only  engage  in  housekeeping,  but  are 
said  to  learn  to  read  in  six  weeks. 

Every  city  child  needs  the  chance  to  learn  through  his  finger 
tips. 

The  testimony  of  the  first-grade  teachers  in  New  Haven,  after 
twenty  years'  experience  in  public  kindergartens,  is  that  the  chil- 
dren coming  from  the  kindergarten  have  more  initiative  and  a 
larger  background  of  experience  than  other  children.  The  social 
instinct  is  conspicuously  developed  in  the  children  from  the  for- 
eign districts.  Pittsburgh  educators  claim  that  kindergarten 
children  pass  through  the  elementary  schools  half  a  year  before 
other  children. 

In  Richmond,  Virginia,  there  is  an  intermediate  grade  between 
the  kindergarten  and  the  primary  grade.  Kalamazoo  is  one  of 
the  cities  making  the  connection  by  planning  the  primary  rooms 
after  the  fashion  of  the  kindergarten  with  similar  tables  and 
chairs  and  the  kindergarten  circle  for  the  social  periods.  The 
work  is  facilitated  by  selecting  primary  teachers  who  have  had 
kindergarten  training.  Milwaukee  and  Rochester  have  a  kinder- 
garten in  each  of  their  public  schools.  Pasadena  houses  its 
kindergartens  in  bungalows,  but  maintains  their  organic  rela- 
tion with  the  pubHc  schools  by  locating  each  bungalow  in  the 
corner  of  a  school  campus.  The  children  of  the  Pittsburgh 
kindergartens  make  visits  to  markets,  stores,  and  other  places 
of  interest.  The  kindergartner  visits  the  children.  It  is  re- 
quired that  from  each  kindergarten  at  least  150  visits  shall  be 
made  annually  to  the  homes.  Eighteen  thousand  visits  were 
thus  made  in  1913.  The  chief  weakness  of  the  kindergarten 
seems  to  be  in  its  having  been  regarded  as  a  separate  institution, 
but  it  is  now  being  made  an  integral  part  of  the  school  system. 

The  kindergarten  has  rewarded  its  friends  by  permeating  the 
elementary  curriculum  with  the  spirit  of  freedom. 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  1 79 


The  Elementary  Grades 


The  kindergarten  is  a  symbol  of  the  great  pedagogical  principle, 
"a  little  child  shall  lead  them,"  that  is  responsible  for  the  com- 
plete overturning  of  the  school  system  imposed  upon  American 
cities  by  the  colleges  with  their  entrance  examination  standards. 
The  number  of  children  in  attendance  to-day  and  the  gigantic  ex- 
pense involved  have  caused  American  educators  to  see  that  edu- 
cation must  serve  those  whom  the  public  schools  reach  and  not 
be  designed  for  the  insignificant  collegiate  minority.  Twelve 
hundred  American  cities  have  eighteen  miUion  children  enrolled 
in  their  schools. 

The  clumsy,  mechanical,  expensive  methods  of  former  days 
will  no  longer  do. 

A  number  of  American  cities  are  grading  their  schools  by 
superior  methods.  Instead  of  having  all  the  children  ten  years 
of  age  pursue  the  same  subjects  every  day,  some  unable  to  keep 
up,  some  marking  time  daily  and  wasting  two  or  three  months 
in  the  year,  systems  of  promotion  or  election  now  enable  children 
to  go  through  the  schools  on  merit.  For  twenty  years  Cam- 
bridge has  permitted  children  to  pass  through  the  grammar 
schools  in  four,  five  or  six  years,  according  to  their  ability.  In 
Pueblo,  Colorado,  the  individual  child  is  advanced  without  ref- 
erence to  the  other  children.  North  Denver  provides  that  the 
cleverer  children  may  do  more  intensive  and  individual  work 
while  the  other  members  of  the  class  are  being  held  to  the  rou- 
tine course.  Fresno,  California,  regroups  the  children  monthly, 
allowing  the  slow,  medium  and  alert  children  to  advance  as  they 
are  able. 

The  pubUc  schools  begin  to  educate  the  individual  child,  in- 
stead of  the  hypothetical  ''average  child." 

Manual  Training 

Experiments  in  promotion,  coupled  with  the  introduction  of 
manual  training,  have  led  to  the  reorganization  of  the  school  life 
of  the  children  in  many  cities.  Manual  training  is  now  so  thor- 
oughly accepted  in  American  pubUc  schools  that  only  backward 
cities  omit  it.  It  has  permeated  the  school  system,  as  has  the 
kindergarten,  so  that  the  recognition  that  the  whole  child  goes 


l8o  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

to  school  is  almost  universal.  Manual  training  was  originally 
one  of  the  "fads,"  opposed  by  unlettered  business  men  and  un- 
thinking editors.  Manual  training  is  recognized  now  as  being 
quite  as  indispensable  for  mental  training  as  for  trade  educa- 
tion. The  greater  progress  made  in  the  first  six  grades,  if  the 
child's  mind  is  relieved  by  bodily  activities,  and  the  necessity 
of  keeping  the  children  longer  in  school  to  fit  them  for  occupation 
are  leading  to  a  new  division  between  elementary  and  secondary 
education. 

So  far  from  neglecting  the  three  R's,  it  is  found  possible  to 
teach  them  adequately  in  six  years  instead  of  eight. 

The  opposition  to  the  so-called  "fads"  or  "frills"  —  nature 
study,  music,  drawing,  industrial  and  household  arts  —  has 
been  justified  in  part  by  their  being  superadded  to  a  fixed  system 
of  education.  When  they  become  organic  and  the  old  literary 
subjects  are  made  incidental  to  those  things  from  which  the  child 
gathers  experience,  the  work  becomes  more  thorough.  It  mani- 
festly requires  more  hours  a  day  to  give  a  conventional  literary 
training  and  at  the  same  time  require  a  child  to  do  the  things 
that  once  occupied  all  his  waking  hours.  The  lengthened 
school  day,  however,  is  a  relief,  instead  of  a  tax,  when  the  sub- 
jects are  diversified  and  all  the  faculties,  instead  of  merely  the 
mind,  are  occupied. 

The  Cincinnati  schools  represent  the  rapidity  of  the  recent 
transformation  of  the  school  system.  There  are  forty-three 
elements  in  the  curriculum,  thirty-two  of  which  were  non-exist- 
ent in  1904.^ 

Domestic  Science 

Manual  training  for  girls  logically  takes  the  form  of  the  domes- 
tic sciences,  not  because  girls  are  to  be  restricted  to  these  sub- 
jects, but  because  such  instruction  grows  out  of  their  home 
experience  and  is  likely  to  be  a  necessity  of  life.  In  Chicago 
202  out  of  276  elementary  public  schools  have  their  own  domestic 
science  equipment,  as  well  as  18  high  schools  out  of  19.  Sewing 
is  begun  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  and  domestic  science 
is  taught  three  hours  a  week  for  half  of  the  year  in  the  sixth,  sev- 
enth and  eighth  grades.     This  work  now  culminates  in, the  Lucy 

*  See  Appendix  i. 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  l8l 

Flower  Technical  High  School,  where  domestic  art  is  happily 
united  to  domestic  science.  The  art  department  and  the  sewing 
department  cooperate  in  dressmaking.  The  lunches  are  pre- 
pared by  the  domestic  science  students.  There  is  a  laundry 
at  the  school,  in  which  the  girls  not  only  learn  scientific  launder- 
ing, but  the  nature  of  the  materials  in  common  use.  Washing 
all  kinds  of  fabrics,  bleaching,  removing  stains  and  ironing  are 
all  treated  from  the  standpoint  of  science  and  economy. 

Domestic  science  work  must  stand  the  test  by  actual  use. 

Los  Angeles,  at  the  Castelar  Street  School,  has  a  domestic 
science  building  for  the  elementary  grades.  It  is  used  by  the 
regular  elementary  classes  and  by  the  after-school  classes. 
Cooking,  sewing,  housekeeping,  nursing,  sanitation,  the  selec- 
tion and  purchase  of  foods  and  the  preparation  and  serving  of 
the  school  lunches  are  included  in  the  curriculum.  Few  school 
systems  now  lack  domestic  science,  but  until  the  curriculum 
is  completely  reorganized,  it  must  be  denied  many  girls  and  too 
little  will  be  given  to  those  who  do  receive  instruction.  Only 
43,500  of  the  388,000  girls  in  New  York  City  could  take  advan- 
tage of  the  admirable  domestic  science  equipment  in  191 2.  One 
hundred  and  seventy  of  the  560  elementary  schools  are  equipped 
for  cooking,  which  is  provided  for  the  seventh-  and  eighth-grade 
girls.  Twenty  thousand  left  school  before  reaching  the  seventh 
grade  !  New  York,  however,  has  been  a  pioneer  in  a  device  that 
is  now  employed  elsewhere,  the  establishment  of  a  housekeeping 
center.  A  model  flat  was  started  in  New  York  in  1902  for  ex- 
perimental housekeeping. 

In  the  city  where  two-thirds  of  the  schools  give  no  domestic 
training  an  organization  of  influential  women  can  find  no  more 
positive  way  to  preserve  the  home  than  opposing  the  vote. 

Art 

It  is  not  a  very  long  step  from  the  appreciation  of  dexterity 
to  the  desire  for  creation.  The  art  influence  of  the  schools 
takes  the  form  of  art  instruction  and  of  the  beauty  of  school 
buildings.  William  Bently  Fowle,  headmaster  of  a  Boston 
pubhc  school,  in  181 2  introduced  drawing  as  a  required  study. 
In  1827  the  English  High  School  adopted  it,  but  not  until  1853 
was  there  a  special  teacher.     Philadelphia  appointed  Rembrandt 


1 82  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Peale,  one  of  its  own  artists,  to  supervise  drawing  in  the  schools 
in  1842.  Art  instruction  in  the  schools  has  advanced  remark- 
ably in  the  last  two  decades.  In  Massachusetts  (as  in  New  York) 
there  is  state  supervision  of  art  instruction  which  tends  to  extend 
the  good  influences  of  Boston  and  other  progressive  cities  over 
the  whole  state.  The  art  instruction  in  the  Massachusetts 
schools  is  carried  on  throughout  the  entire  system  from  the 
State  Normal  Art  School  down  to  the  lowest  grade. 

Every  child  has  the  instinct  of  beauty  until  the  sordidness  of 
life  crushes  it. 

In  New  York  City  previous  to  1897  drawing  was  taught  by  the 
class  teachers  without  assistance.  In  that  year  Dr.  James  P. 
Haney,  supervisor  of  manual  training,  had  added  to  his  functions 
the  supervision  of  art  education,  which  required  not  simply  the 
teaching  of  the  children  but  of  the  classroom  teachers.  Art 
teachers  in  the  New  York  schools  are  selected  from  eligible  lists 
made  up  by  the  director  of  drawing.  The  positions  are  widely 
advertised  in  the  press  and  in  normal  and  high  schools  through- 
out the  country.  The  training  of  the  teachers  selected  continues 
during  the  school  year.  The  director  holds  local  and  central 
conferences  monthly  and  teachers  visit  each  other's  schools. 
Thirty  of  the  best  teachers  assisted  in  giving  the  instruction  in 
1914,  using  the  productions  of  a  hundred  of  the  city  teachers  as 
illustrative  material.  The  pupils  enjoy  the  benefits  not  only  of 
the  superior  methods  of  pedagogy,  but  lectures  and  exhibitions 
promoted  by  the  School  Art  League. 

The  art  treasures  of  the  city  are  thus  made  intelligible  to  thou- 
sands of  pupils. 

The  present  tendency  in  Chicago  is  to  make  art  an  organic 
part  of  education.  The  first  purpose  with  children  above  the 
kindergarten  is  to  train  eye  and  hand  together.  This  is  done  in 
the  first  grade  by  paper  folding  and  tearing,  in  the  second 
by  making  paper  furniture  and  boxes,  in  the  third  by  mak- 
ing raffia  mats  and  bags,  in  the  fourth  by  constructing  reed 
baskets,  in  the  fifth  by  sewing  and  scroll  sawing.  As  early 
as  possible  design  is  introduced  to  bring  out  the  child's  individ- 
uality. This  is  not  confined  to  work  in  the  art  department,  but 
is  applicable  to  the  arrangement  of  themes  and  examination 
papers  of  all  kinds.  The  more  progressive  teachers  are  using 
drawing  to  visualize  history,  geography,   and    nature    study. 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  183 

Higher  up,  drawing  is  correlated  with  manual  training  and 
the  household  arts.  The  child  having  begun  with  decoration 
goes  on  to  constructive  designing. 

It  was  discovered  in  Chicago  that  50  per  cent  of  the  children 
could  reproduce  objects  in  black  and  white  ;  99  per  cent  in  color. 

The  possibilities  of  local  color  are  admirably  illustrated  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  art  instruction  of  San  Francisco  to  the  Oriental 
children  in  that  city.  It  was  found  that  the  Chinese  child  did 
not  respond  readily  to  "  Red  Riding  Hood,"  "  Pied  Piper  of  Ham- 
elin,"  and  "Pocahontas."  They  were  encouraged  to  try  themes 
suggested  by  the  life  they  knew.  Their  success  in  representing 
such  subjects  as  a  Chinese  pageant,  a  play  at  a  Chinese  theater, 
a  tea  party,  and  a  joss  house,  often  including  the  Occidental 
background,  is  so  great  that  San  Francisco  is  pointing  the  way  to 
the  desirability  of  letting  the  children  express  in  drawing  the 
actual  experiences  of  their  Hves. 

The  function  of  art  education  is  to  enable  each  child  to  pro- 
duce what  no  other  child  can. 

Music 

Music  is  taught  not  only  through  choruses  in  the  Cincinnati 
elementary  schools,  but  by  orchestras,  which  have  been  emi- 
nently successful  in  the  high  schools  and  are  being  extended  to 
the  elementary  schools.  Pupils  are  encouraged  in  their  work 
by  frequent  contributions  to  teachers'  and  parents'  meetings 
and  other  community  gatherings.  The  community  choruses  are 
largely  made  up  of  high  school  graduates.  The  schools  partici- 
pate in  the  Cincinnati  music  festivals. 

The  music  department  of  Minneapolis  includes  a  supervisor, 
four  assistants,  a  high  school  theory  teacher,  and  five  organ 
teachers.  Music  is  a  daily  feature  of  both  grade  and  high  school 
curricula.  Each  pupil  sings  alone  as  well  as  in  chorus,  just  as 
he  recites  individually.  The  rivalry  among  the  pupils  for 
membership  in  the  choruses  is  a  spur  to  the  work.  Every  high 
school  pupil  is  required  to  attend  the  chorus  two  periods  weekly. 
For  four  years'  work  the  pupil  receives  two  credits.  The  same 
credit  is  given  for  one  year's  work  in  piano,  voice,  organ  or  serv- 
ice in  the  orchestra.  The  choruses  not  only  sing  in  the  schools, 
but  give  free  open  air  concerts  in  the  parks,  inviting  the  audiences 


l84  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

to  join  in  the  familiar  songs.  There  are  sometimes  as  many  as 
15,000  auditors. 

Democracy  cannot  become  articulate  until  the  people  can  sing. 

Mr.  Will  Earhart,  upon  becoming  director  of  music  in  Pitts- 
burgh, promptly  revolutionized  the  methods  of  that  city.  The 
work  in  the  grades  was  so  successful  that  a  recital  of  children's 
songs  was  given  in  the  Exposition  Music  Hall  in  June,  1913.  The 
combined  high  school  orchestras  furnished  the  accompaniment 
and  about  1 200  pupils  —  1 50  from  each  of  the  eight  grades  — 
took  part.  The  municipal  Christmas  Tree  called  forth  a  chorus 
of  2200  children.  The  Department  of  Music  has  investigated 
the  musical  conditions  of  Pittsburgh  school  children  and  found 
that  outside  of  the  school  over  7000  students  are  taking  music 
lessons  —  more  than  one  in  ten  of  the  pupils  in  the  day  schools. 
It  is  expected  that  this  work  will  be  accepted  for  graduation. 
Mr.  Earhart  has  pursued  his  investigations  in  other  cities  and 
found  that  twenty-four  high  school  systems  out  of  600  reported 
crediting  pupils  for  piano,  organ,  voice,  vioKn,  and  other  orches- 
tral instruments. 

The  best  developments  of  music  in  the  schools  are  community 
choruses  and  the  teaching  of  musical  appreciation. 

Civics 

There  is  rivalry  between  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  Chicago 
for  the  leading  position  in  the  teaching  of  civics.  Mr.  J.  Wilmer 
Kennedy,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  the  PubUc  Schools  of 
Newark,  pubHshed  in  1892  a  "Course  of  Study  on  the  City  of 
Newark"  to  be  used  in  all  classes  from  the  first  to  the  eighth 
grades.^ 

At  the  Lewis-Champlin  school,  Chicago,  the  principal,  Miss 
Kate  S.  Kellogg,^  devised  a  curriculum  for  each  grade,  which 
enables  the  children  to  develop  many  of  their  subjects  of  study 
from  some  well-known  city  experience.  In  the  primary  grades, 
the  active  interest  of  the  children  in  the  fire  department  was  made 
the  basis  of  their  constructive  work,  giving  "an  easy  channel  for 
the  free  use  of  oral  and  written  language"  and  lending  itself 
"naturally  to  the  interests  of  games  and  dramatization."    The 

>  See  p.  245- 

*  Miss  Kellogg  has  since  become  a  District  Supervisor. 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  185 

finances  of  the  fire  department  were  made  the  basis  of  arith- 
metic. Visits  to  the  engine  house  and  the  Columbian  Museum 
gave  them  a  knowledge  of  invention  and  construction  and  the 
interdependent  social  life  of  to-day,  as  contrasted  with  the  past. 
The  large  number  of  fires  in  the  tenement  districts  introduced 
questions  of  space,  air,  light  and  social  relations. 

The  sixth  grade  followed  the  methods  of  the  contractors  in 
paving  and  building,  and  gave  practical  expression  to  their 
investigations  in  requesting  improvements  in  the  school  grounds, 
based  on  their  own  specifications.  The  seventh  grade  developed 
from  their  drawing  lesson  a  comprehension  of  the  smoke  nuisance, 
which  led  them  to  an  examination  of  the  revised  code  of  Chicago 
and  the  great  field  of  problems  therein  involved.  This  resulted 
in  special  attention  being  given  to  the  disposition  of  the  city's 
wastes,  and  an  individual  proposal  from  each  child  of  a  method 
of  solution.  The  eighth  grade  followed  this  subject  into  the  in- 
tricacies of  sewerage  and  drainage,  studying  the  history  of  Chi- 
cago and  its  most  recent  accompUshments.  The  mechanical 
genius  of  the  boys  found  expression  in  the  construction  of  bridges, 
locks,  boats,  and  all  appurtenances  of  the  drainage  canal.  This 
subject  was  not  left  without  a  considerable  survey  of  the  govern- 
mental questions  involved. 

Citizenship  is  Hfe.     Why  try  to  learn  it  from  a  book  ? 

The  Civics  Extension  Committee  is  now  encouraging  other 
teachers  and  principals  to  employ  the  same  method.^  A  text- 
book, "Wacker's  Manual,"  based  upon  the  "Chicago  Plan," 
drawn  up  by  Messrs.  Burnham  and  Bennett  at  the  expense  of 
the  Commercial  Club,  has  been  written  by  Walter  D.  Moody. 
It  would  give  children  a  magnificent  ideal  of  their  function  in  the 
development  of  the  city  if  teachers  could  be  found  to  use  it. 
The  plan  is  so  elaborate  and  prophetic  that  it  taxes  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  average  teacher.  Nevertheless,  the  Civics  Extension 
Committee  sends  out  package  libraries  for  the  use  of  teachers  and 
pupils  and  the  PubHc  Library  offers  to  duplicate  the  material 
it  has  in  its  Civics  Room.  A  health  exhibit  held  at  the  Carter  H. 
Harrison  Technical  School  drew  an  attendance  of  over  30,000 
in  ten  days  (there  are  two  thousand  day  and  two  thousand  night 
pupils  in  this  school).     Forty  boys  and  girls  made  a  graphic 

'  Appendix  2. 


1 86  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

health  study  of  the  neighborhood,  calling  on  the  City  Club  and 
the  Health  Department  of  the  Civics  Extension  Committee  for 
help.  Evening  entertainments  supplemented  by  a  high  school 
orchestra  and  the  girls'  glee  club  appealed  to  the  different  na- 
tionalities in  the  neighborhood  for  their  selections.  The  stu- 
dents also  acted  as  guides  to  the  exhibition. 

In  Winston-Salem,  North  CaroHna,  there  are  three  methods  of 
training  for  citizenship :  (i)  cooperation  between  the  public 
schools  and  the  Board  of  Trade,  (2)  the  department  of  govern- 
ment and  economics  in  the  high  school,  (3)  the  "juvenile  club" 
or  boys'  department  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  An  industrial 
survey  has  been  made  by  the  juvenile  club  under  the  direction 
of  the  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

Many  schools  use  the  daily  press  in  their  civics  classes.  Public 
libraries  cooperate,  as  the  library  at  Houghton,  Michigan.  High 
school  seniors  gather  there  and  clip  the  exchanges  of  the  local 
paper.  They  have  been  instructed  to  look  for  political,  eco- 
nomic, or  social  data,  especially  pertaining  to  their  state.  These 
have  been  classified  and  used  not  only  in  the  civics  and  history 
classes,  but  by  the  English  department.  The  envelope  includ- 
ing proposed  legislation  in  Michigan,  for  example,  contains 
cHppings  on  such  subjects  as  fraternal  insurance  societies,  local 
option,  primary  elections,  the  recall,  teachers'  pensions,  saloons, 
education,  prison  legislation,  "blue  sky"  laws,  and  private  banks. 
The  class  pursues  these  subjects  by  getting  state  and  national 
documents  to  supplement  the  cHppings.  They  thus  have  access 
to  a  text-book  that  in  volume  and  immediate  pertinence  could 
not  be  issued  by  any  pubHsher.  The  Lane  Technical  High 
School,  Chicago,  issues  its  own  daily  paper  for  free  distribution 
among  its  2000  students  and  faculty.  The  boys  get  training 
not  only  in  EngUsh,  but  in  every  mechanical  detail  of  the  news- 
paper office,  even  to  making  type. 

Kansas  City,  Kansas,  uses  the  chemistry  course  in  the  high 
school  for  the  teaching  of  practical  civics.  Water  and  milk 
analyses  are  made  and  high  school  students  serve  in  the  mu- 
nicipal laboratories.  At  Gary  the  pupils  test  all  of  the  food 
and  materials  used  in  the  schools. 

Self-government  in  elementary  schools  has  been  tried  in  many 
places  with  varying  success.  It  is  achieved  in  part  by  the  proper 
organization  of  classes.     Self-governing  teachers  usually  have 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  187 

self-governing  classes.  Philadelphia  and  New  York  have  ex- 
perimented with  the  School  Republic,  a  system  of  government 
devised  by  Wilson  L.  Gill.  A  League  of  School  States  was  or- 
ganized in  1913  by  the  officers  of  self-governing  schools  in  Man- 
hattan and  Brooklyn.  Meetings  were  held  for  the  promotion 
of  the  movement,  culminating  in  a  June  picnic.  The  model 
of  parliamentary  government  has  proved  too  complex  for  most 
elementary  schools.^ 

Moral  Training 

Moral  training  has  been  unfortunately  confused  with  instruc- 
tion in  the  Hebrew  and  Christian  Scriptures.  The  problem  was 
a  simple  one  when  the  Puritans  predominated  in  the  colonies. 
With  the  advent  of  people  of  other  faiths,  the  Protestant  Bible 
ceased  to  be  the  authority.  Literalists,  however,  have  clamored 
for  the  retention  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools,  believing  that  its 
perfunctory  reading  is  better  than  its  absence.  Any  proposal 
for  moral  training  is  met  by  such  people  with  the  objection  that 
it  is  irreligious  or  agnostic.  The  result  is  parochial  schools 
conducted  by  Roman  Catholics  and  Lutherans,  who  insist  on 
the  supreme  importance  of  religious  instruction,  and  public 
schools  where  even  the  Bible  must  be  taboo.  It  is  considered 
a  triumph  in  New  York  City  that  the  charter  requires  Bible 
reading  regardless  of  the  sacrilegious  way  in  which  an  indifferent 
teacher  may  read  it  to  preoccupied  children. 

Ingenious  people  have  not  only  made  bricks  without  straw,  but 
without  clay. 

In  contrast  with  this  method  is  that  defended  by  Superintend- 
ent J.  H.  Phillips  of  the  Birmingham,  Alabama,  schools,  who 
says : 

The  teachers  feel  as  free  to  use  the  Bible  daily  in  the  schools  as  any  other 
good  book  ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  used  daily  in  our  high  schools  and  in  the 
higher  grades  of  our  elementary  schools.  There  has  never  been  any  attempt 
to  legislate  the  Bible  into  the  schools ;  such  action  is  unnecessary ;  it  would 
simply  invite  further  legislation  to  put  it  out. 

The  reading  of  the  Bible  and  the  repetition  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  are  forbidden  in  Louisiana  by  decision  of  the  Superior 
Court. 

•  For  self-government  in  secondary  schools  see  pp.  212-214. 


1 88  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  state  of  North  Dakota  is  providing  that  its  cities  shall  be 
able  to  use  the  Bible  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high  schools  without 
the  imputation  of  a  religious  exercise  and  by  a  method  which  at 
least  commands  attention.  The  Bible  is  treated  as  literature  and 
history.  The  state  issues  a  Syllabus  for  Bible  Study,  outlining 
the  geography  of  Bible  lands,  the  history  of  the  Hebrews,  the  life 
of  Jesus,  and  the  early  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
work  is  done  at  home  so  that  parents  and  church  teachers  may 
direct  the  study  if  they  choose.  The  state  prescribes  no  refer- 
ence books  and  the  study  is  elective.  This  may  point  the  way 
to  a  solution  of  the  relation  of  the  Bible  to  the  public  school,  but 
it  certainly  does  not  provide  moral  training  for  the  student  body 
either  with  or  without  the  Bible. 

The  Gary  school  children  are  credited  an  hour  or  two  a  week 
spent  in  their  respective  churches  in  voluntary  biblical  study 
under  their  accepted  spiritual  advisers. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, rejoicing  in  the  law  passed  recently  by  that  state,  re- 
quiring the  Bible  to  be  read  in  the  public  schools  and  that  a 
teacher  could  be  discharged  for  refusing  to  read  ten  verses  a  day, 
naively  admitted  that  the  Bible  did  not  teach  the  boy  to  brush 
his  teeth  or  avoid  cigarettes.  Grand  Rapids  is  endeavoring 
to  meet  the  problem  of  moral  training  through  its  vocational 
guidance.  Themes  are  given  in  the  study  of  English  that  will 
induce  thinking  on  moral  responsibilities.  The  public  library 
is  cooperating  in  furnishing  material  for  these  themes.  This  ex- 
periment suggests  that  all  good  workmanship  under  an  inspiring 
teacher  is  moral  discipline  and  may  even  savor  of  religious  in- 
spiration. 

Pupils  may  be  brought  into  harmony  with  Nature,  with  man, 
and  with  God  without  a  word  of  theological  instruction. 

Hygienic  Teaching 

The  teaching  of  hygiene  is  still  a  subject  of  controversy,  as  is 
religious  education,  but  there  is  no  longer  dispute  about  the 
value  of  physical  training.  Almost  every  new  high  school  in- 
cludes a  gymnasium  and  playground,  and  most  of  the  elementary 
grades  have  some  form  of  physical  culture.  The  best  schools 
endeavor  to  guide  the  athletic  exercises  of  the  children  through- 


INDOOR    EDUCATION  1 89 

out  the  course.'  New  York  City  is  experimenting  successfully 
in  extensive  athletics,  tempting  at  least  the  boys  to  participate 
instead  of  being  merely  rooters.  Class  competitions  are  ar- 
ranged, by  which  four-fifths  of  the  boys  in  a  class  are  encouraged 
to  compete  in  order  to  raise  the  class  athletic  record.  Eight 
thousand  boys  in  the  grammar  grades  enter  the  running  races. 
The  schools  have  their  own  athletic  meets.  The  girls  engage 
in  folk  dancing.  Nine  hundred  and  forty-one  teachers  have 
organized  269  groups  of  girls  for  long  walks. 

In  lieu  of  the  old  pathological  teaching  about  alcoholism  and 
tobacco  the  child  is  positively  taught  the  care  of  his  body. 

The  boys  in  the  New  Trier  Township  High  School  at  Kenil- 
worth,  Illinois,  meet  for  forty-five  minutes  after  the  school  ses- 
sion for  gymnastic  exercises.  They  all  progress  from  one  piece 
of  apparatus  to  another  until  they  are  ready  to  take  part  in  handi- 
cap games.  After  the  use  of  the  gymnasium,  swimming  is 
permitted.  In  this  way  almost  every  boy  is  interested  in  some 
phase  of  athletics.  Supplementing  the  athletic  work,  New 
York  offers  thirty  evening  lectures  on  First  Aid  to  the  Injured, 
in  addition  to  half  as  many  on  general  hygiene.  The  12,000 
pupils  in  the  evening  schools  of  Buffalo  were  thus  instructed  in 
the  preventable  ailments. 

The  average  citizen  needs  hardly  anything  so  much  as  team 
play. 

Birmingham,  Alabama,^  conducts  a  brief  course  on  sex  hygiene 
for  mothers,  delivered  at  five  school  centers  in  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon.  At  most  of  the  schools  a  temporary  nursery  is  fitted 
up  by  the  older  pupils,  who  are  thus  given  incidental  training 
in  the  care  of  babies.  The  Cleveland  plan  is  to  invite  men  and 
women  to  the  schools  in  the  evening,  a  woman  physician  present- 
ing the  subject  to  mothers,  and  a  man  speaking  to  the  fathers. 
This  has  met  with  a  large  response.  One  of  the  smaller  cities 
that  has  introduced  sex  hygiene  is  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. 
The  subject  is  begun  by  a  study  of  reproduction  in  the  lower 
orders  of  plant  and  animal  life.  Instruction  is  given  not  only  by 
teachers,  but  by  physicians,  a  woman  for  the  girls  and  a  man  for 
the  boys.     These  talks  are  very  intimate  and  direct. 

Decency  and  frankness  are  antidotes  for  lewdness  and  ob- 
scenity. 

'  See  Appendix  3.  ^  See  Appendix  4. 


190  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

An  elaborate  system  of  sex  hygiene  was  introduced  in  Chicago 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Vice  Commission  in  191 1.  Lec- 
tures were  given  in  twenty  centers,  the  mothers  coming  in  the 
afternoon  and  the  fathers  in  the  evening.  This  was  followed 
by  a  brief  course  on  the  subject  of  personal  purity  in  each  of  the 
twenty-one  high  schools  and  the  normal  college.  The  classes 
were  segregated  and  all  excused  whose  parents  objected. 
Twenty-one  thousand  and  five  hundred  pupils  attended  the  lec- 
tures in  November,  1913,  one  per  cent  of  the  membership  being 
excused.  It  was  so  successful  that  the  Superintendent  was 
instructed  to  prepare  a  plan  for  extending  the  work  into  the 
elementary  grades. 

The  opposition  of  childless  custodians  of  morality  caused 
the  work  to  be  abandoned  in  January,  1914. 

Exceptional  Children 

As  the  new  system  of  grading  in  the  elementary  schools,  the 
junior  high  school,  and  the  all-year  school  make  opportunities 
for  the  supernormal  child,  so  modifications  are  being  introduced 
to  care  for  the  subnormal  child.  The  first  city  to  establish 
classes  for  deficient  pupils  seems  to  have  been  Cleveland,  in- 
fluenced by  an  address  deUvered  by  August  Schenck  in  1878. 
Subnormal  children  were  put  in  a  separate  room  in  Chicago 
in  1892 ;  there  were  over  fifty  such  rooms  in  Chicago  in  1914. 
Providence  in  1893  organized  six  classes  in  an  endeavor  to  make 
a  comprehensive  provision  for  truants  and  disorderly  children ; 
a  separate  class  for  backward  children  followed  in  1896.  In 
spite  of  the  extent  of  child  study  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  it  was  not  until  the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  that  a  scien- 
tific endeavor  was  made  to  examine  the  individual  child  by  a 
trained  psychologist.  Dr.  Walter  Scott  Christopher  secured 
the  establishment  of  the  Department  of  Child  Study  and  Ped- 
agogic Investigation  in  the  Chicago  schools  in  1899. 

Cities  as  remote  as  Hartford,  Connecticut,  and  Salt  Lake 
City,  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  and  Los  Angeles  have  scien- 
tific clinics  or  laboratories. 

In  the  care  of  deficient  children  Baltimore  provides  two  classes 
for  epileptics,  who  attend  in  the  forenoon,  street  car  tickets  being 
provided  for  those  that  need  them.     Chicago  has  two  schools  for 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  I9I 

crippled  children  to  which  ihcy  are  transported  free  in  ten  busses. 
The  Spalding  School  on  the  West  Side  is  entirely  for  cripples. 
Five  teachers  care  for  one  hundred  children  in  the  winter.  There 
is  also  a  summer  school.  New  York  segregated  six  hundred 
crippled  children  in  1913.  Cincinnati  separates  its  mentally 
defective  children  and  the  deaf,  but  carries  on  the  instruction 
of  the  blind  so  as  to  give  them  as  much  association  with  normal 
children  as  possible.  Grand  Rapids  provides  for  its  retarded 
pupils  in  special  classes  and  has  an  additional  school  for  the  men- 
tally defective  ^  with  twelve  pupils  in  each  of  the  four  rooms. 

New  Jersey  appropriates  $500  for  each  teacher  having  charge 
of  a  special  class.  This  enables  Atlantic  City  to  draw  its  six 
teachers  from  Vineland  and  neighboring  institutions. 

The  problem  of  retarded  children  assumes  almost  incredible 
proportions  in  a  city  like  New  York,  where  21  per  cent  out  of 
580,000  elementary  school  children  were  backward  in  191 2. 
Los  Angeles  has  evolved  an  elaborate  system  for  the  classifica- 
tion and  care  of  its  special  pupils.  This  includes  (i)  ungraded 
rooms  for  all  backward  children,  (2)  special  ungraded  rooms  for 
truants  and  incorrigibles,  (3)  segregation  of  the  newly  arrived 
immigrants,  (4)  a  detention  house  for  cooperation  with  the  ju- 
venile court,  (5)  classes  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  (6)  a  day 
nursery  housed  by  the  school  department,  but  administered  by 
the  parent-teacher  association.  Three  hundred  cities  and  towns 
made  special  provision  for  subnormal  children  in  1914. 

The  subnormal  child  points  the  way  for  the  normal  child  as  the 
kindergarten  child  did  for  the  older  child. 

School  Lunches 

Free  lunches  furnished  by  charity  were  known  in  American 
cities  as  early  as  1855.  New  York  City,  where  the  Children's 
Aid  Society  began  this  charity  at  that  date,  has  now  an  exten- 
sive system  of  lunches  in  the  elementary  as  well  as  the  high 
schools,  conducted  by  the  cooperative  efforts  of  the  educational 
authorities  and  a  committee  of  social  workers,  physicians,  and 
teachers.  Seventy-seven  cities  reported  school  lunches  in  191 2. 
Children  in  the  eight  largest  cities  of  America  have  been  cal- 

1  Appendix  5. 


192  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

culated  to  be  spending  a  million  and  a  half  for  lunches  every  year, 
buying  more  than  twice  as  much  food  value  at  the  school  lunch 
counter  as  on  the  street. 

The  Chicago  school  authorities  once  turned  off  the  water  in 
the  schools  when  the  Health  Department  declared  it  undrink- 
able.  The  children  brought  unfiltered  water  in  bottles.  Their 
home  lunches  are  doubtless  just  as  nutritious. 

Seven  schools  in  Manhattan  serve  lunches  under  the  auspices 
of  the  School  Lunch  Committee.  A  superintendent  and  cook 
are  employed,  but  the  older  children  sell  tickets  and  help  in  the 
service,  for  which  they  are  given  their  lunches.  They  wear  white 
caps  and  aprons,  and  those  who  handle  bread  wear  white  gloves. 
The  dietaries  arc  arranged  for  the  consideration  of  the  habits  of 
the  local  population.  Children  are  not  allowed  to  buy  desserts 
until  they  have  consumed  something  substantial.  There  is  a 
daily  deficit  of  about  one  cent  a  meal,  taking  no  account  of  the 
unfair  burdens  laid  upon  the  already  overworked  teaching  force. 

The  Washington  Irving  High  School  serves  a  dinner  to  the  girls 
who  come  to  the  evening  classes,  so  that  they  may  avoid  public 
restaurants  and  spend  their  leisure  time  in  the  gymnasium  or 
reading  rooms  of  the  high  school. 

The  Home  and  School  League  of  Philadelphia  developed  a 
system  of  lunches  from  a  beginning  in  two  schools  at  the  end 
of  the  nineteenth  century  to  ten  schools  until  it  was  taken  over 
by  the  Board  of  Education.  A  forenoon  lunch  is  offered  during 
the  recess  at  lo :  30  and  a  fuller  meal  at  the  noon  intermission. 
A  school  worker  keeps  a  card  catalogue  of  the  dishes  served  and 
the  food  value  of  each  constituent,  as  well  as  a  record  of  the  cost. 
Definite  experiments  have  been  made  to  find  out  the  dietaries 
adapted  to  different  localities.  A  Home  Visitor  is  employed  to 
examine  the  children  and  look  after  the  underfed.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1909,  the  experiment  was  undertaken  of  supplying  lunches 
to  the  high  schools  on  a  cooperative  plan.  The  principal  and 
teachers  in  each  school  offer  encouragement,  but  the  pupils 
maintain  the  system.  In  the  sixteen  high  schools  12,000  pupils 
and  500  teachers  are  fed  daily.  While  the  plant  is  furnished 
by  the  Board  of  Education,  the  preparation  and  service  of  the 
food  is  self-sustaining,  the  receipts  in  1913  amounting  to  $90,000. 

The  school  lunch  paid  for  by  the  taxpayer  is  no  more  paternal- 
istic than  free  water  in  the  schoolhouse. 


INDOOR   EDUCATION  193 

In  Birmingham,  Alabama,  the  lunch  system  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  committee  of  ladies,  representing  the  District  School 
Improvement  Association.  It  was  inaugurated  in  the  Central 
High  School  about  eight  years  ago,  and  is  now  carried  on  in  three 
high  schools  and  twenty-five  elementary  schools,  five  of  which 
are  schools  for  colored  children.  In  the  high  schools  about  2000 
five-cent  lunches  are  served  daily,  and  in  the  elementary  schools, 
the  sales  vary  from  2500  to  5000. 

The  school  lunch  affords  the  only  guarantee  that  each  child 
shall  have  one  good  meal  a  day. 

The  Home  School 

Providence  has  made  a  success  of  the  Home  School.  It  was 
organized  in  191 1,  designed  primarily  for  girls  who  had  left  school 
and  were  at  work.  Pubhc  school  pupils  were  also  accepted.  A 
house  was  rented  in  a  congested  quarter  and  furnished  by  the 
students.  Beauty  was  secured  in  spite  of  the  limited  expenditure. 
Four  teachers  take  charge  of  groups  of  thirty  girls  attending  two 
evenings  a  week.  These  women  are  not  school  teachers,  but 
speciaUsts  in  cooking,  sewing  and  general  housework.  Super- 
intendent Randall  J.  Condon,  who  had  inaugurated  such  a  school 
in  Helena,  Montana,  said  before  leaving  Providence  for  Cincin- 
nati : 

"The  girls  were  to  have  the  entire  responsibility  and  do  all  the  work  con- 
nected with  the  school.  They  were  to  wash,  iron,  clean,  sweep  and  dust ; 
sew,  mend  and  make-over;  they  were  to  cook,  serve  and  eat;  build  and 
tend  the  kitchen  fire,  and  sift  the  ashes. 

"In  the  spring  they  were  to  plant  the  flower  and  vegetable  garden  in  the 
backyard ;  tend  it  in  the  summer ;  cook  the  fresh  vegetables,  and  pickle 
and  preserve  the  surplus  for  the  next  winter's  use.  And  there  were  to  be 
long  walks  into  the  country  for  the  girls  who  were  free  from  work  —  to 
gather  the  wild  flowers ;  and  the  wild  grapes,  apples  and  barberries  for  pre- 
serving and  jelly-making.  It  was  to  be  work,  but  work  that  was  joyous. 
The  talks  by  the  teachers  and  the  note  taking  were  to  be  so  closely  related 
to  what  was  being  done  that  they  would  constitute  an  essential  part  of  the 
work.  Intelligence,  skill,  power,  joy  were  the  results;  learning  through 
study  and  work  closely  related. 

"The  cost  and  value  of  food  and  all  other  materials  were  carefully  studied  ; 
personal  hygiene  and  household  sanitation  were  given  due  attention ;  feed- 
ing, bathing,  clothing  and  care  of  younger  children  and  babies  occupied  an 
important  place  on  the  program.  And  there  were  quiet  hours  for  reading 
and  meditation  and  serious  conversation  on  the  deep  things  of  life ;  for  these 


194  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

girls  were  being  made  ready  for  motherhood  —  and  the  spiritual  ideals  of 
home  life  were  considered  fully  as  important  as  the  training  in  household 
occupations. 

"On  Saturdays  the  mothers  of  the  neighborhood  brought  their  babies  to 
receive  advice  and  instruction  from  the  Superintendent  of  Child  Hygiene 
and  a  school  nurse." 

Philadelphia  in  1914  equipped  nine  of  its  thirty-four  domestic 
science  centers  for  mothercraft  to  reach  the  girls  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades. 

It  is  significant  that  as  education  is  carried  more  and  more 
outdoors  and  into  industry  indoor  education  should  bear  a  closer 
resemblance  to  the  home. 


CHAPTER  XI 
OUTDOOR   EDUCATION 

The  hermetically  sealed  schoolhouse  with  rigid  desks,  inelas- 
tic curriculum,  and  impervious  teacher  is  being  rapidly  sup- 
planted by  the  open  schoolhouse  with  movable  furnishings  and 
open-minded  teacher.  Light  and  air  admitted  freely  are  still 
not  adequate  for  the  freest  education.  City,  as  well  as  country, 
children  must  get  into  the  open.  Beginning  with  nature  study 
in  the  classroom.  Nature  has  rapidly  invited  the  school  out- 
doors. 

A  bird  cannot  learn  to  fly  until  it  gets  out  of  the  nest. 

Nature  Study 

Nature  study,  which  is  now  almost  universal  in  American  city 
schools,  was  introduced  originally  as  a  cultural  subject.  It  has 
been  elaborated  until  high  schools  often  have  biological  labora- 
tories comparable  to  those  of  colleges.  The  importance  of  nature 
study  in  the  school  curriculum  may  be  illustrated  by  the  Girls' 
Normal  School  of  Philadelphia,  in  which  a  course  is  given  to  the 
normal  students  and  to  the  young  children  in  the  practice 
school.  Beginning  with  the  kindergarten,  the  study  is  em- 
bodied in  their  games  and  songs,  a  representation  of  a  bird  teach- 
ing what  flight  and  freedom  mean ;  in  the  keeping  of  pets,  to 
develop  care  and  responsibility ;  in  excursions  to  a  farm,  to  the 
park,  and  to  the  zoological  garden  ;  in  collections,  e.g.,  of  cocoons 
and  empty  nests ;  in  the  use  of  pictures ;  in  manual  activities, 
and  in  literature.  The  hmited  number  of  specimens  found  in 
the  park  or  in  the  country  is  amplified  by  the  collections  of  the 
museum.  Living  specimens  are  brought  to  the  school  as  far  as 
possible ;  the  methods  are  strictly  those  of  the  laboratory  rather 
than  of  the  classroom.  The  study  is  not  confined  to  organic 
nature,  but  passes  on  to  observations  of  the  clouds  and  wind,  the 

I9S 


196  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

action  of  water  in  all  its  forms,  and  the  relation  of  these  things 
to  the  work  of  man. 

The  menagerie  of  the  Gary  schools  ranges  from  snakes  and 
rabbits  to  Brer  Fox.     The  children  house  and  care  for  these  pets. 

School  Gardens 

School  gardens  naturally  grew  out  of  the  nature  study  classes 
as  the  need  of  outdoor  work  became  more  evident ;  scientific 
pedagogy  demanded  that  the  laboratory  yield  to  the  field.  The 
school  garden  movement  began  in  1891  in  Boston,  inspired  by 
Henry  M.  Clapp,  master  of  the  George  Putnam  School  in  Rox- 
bury.  A  collection  of  wild  flowers  formed  the  modest  beginning 
of  this  movement.  The  next  effort  seems  to  have  been  in 
Dayton,  where  the  National  Cash  Register  Company  estabhshed 
a  boys'  school  garden  in  1897.  This  resulted  from  the  discovery 
of  Mr.  John  H.  Patterson  that  he  rarely  found  a  man  to  fail  who 
had  been  responsible  as  a  boy  for  farm  and  garden  chores. 

Such  gardens  are  found  now  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the 
dimensions  of  the  movement  have  warranted  the  organization  of 
the  School  Garden  Association  of  America.^ 

In  1900  the  Cleveland  Home  Garden  Association  distributed 
over  48,000  penny  packages  of  seeds,  making  the  enterprise  self- 
sustaining  from  the  beginning  and  supporting  a  test  garden  by 
the  surplus.  The  Board  of  Education  recognized  the  success  of 
this  endeavor  and  incorporated  it  into  the  city  school  system. 
In  1914  there  were  reported  over  50,000  home  gardens  that  had 
blossomed  from  these  seeds.  The  school  children  of  San  Antonio 
cultivate  949  plots  in  the  gardens  attached  to  the  29  schools  of 
that  city.  San  Antonio  has  the  advantage  of  a  climate  that 
enables  gardens  to  be  cultivated  during  most  of  the  year.  Los 
Angeles  has  60  school  gardens,  of  which  the  largest  is  at  the 
Gardena  Agricultural  High  School,  where  nearly  10  acres  are 
given  to  vegetables,  flowers  and  fruit.  Over  15,000  grammar 
school  children  who  received  gardening  instruction  in  the  schools 
have  engaged  in  home  gardening  under  the  direction  of  the  agri- 
cultural department  of  the  Los  Angeles  schools.  A  supervisor, 
an  assistant  supervisor,  and  three  special  teachers  are  employed 

^  Appendix  i. 


OUTDOOR   EDUCATION  197 

who  engage  in  propaganda  in  schools  where  there  is  demand  for 
it,  guiding  the  children  in  both  the  school  and  the  home  gardens. 

Honest  Congressmen  might  well  direct  their  annual  seed  graft 
to  the  school  gardens  of  their  districts. 

In  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  the  teacher  of  gardening  pro- 
motes home  gardens,  as  well  as  school  gardens,  by  taking  her 
long  vacation  in  winter  so  that  she  can  give  the  summer  to  her 
work.  Memphis,  Tennessee,  employs  a  supervisor  for  its  school 
gardening.  Thirty  garden  sites,  ranging  from  one-half  an  acre 
to  an  acre,  are  cultivated  by  2000  boys  in  the  iifth  to  the  eighth 
grades.  They  give  an  hour  and  a  half  a  week  to  gardening, 
while  the  girls  of  the  corresponding  grades  sew.  Each  boy  in 
1 91 3  had  a  plot  ten  by  twenty  feet  for  which  he  was  held  respon- 
sible. He  had  to  keep  a  record  of  the  cost,  as  well  as  of  the 
quantities  of  the  produce. 

This  horticultural  instruction  is  given  to  both  white  and 
colored  boys,  but  for  some  reason  not  to  girls. 

The  children  in  New  York  City  cultivated  6500  house  gardens 
in  1913  and  over  160,000  flower  and  vegetable  plots.  The  most 
notable  school  garden  in  New  York  is  that  of  the  De  Witt 
Clinton  School,  where  1000  children  are  occupied  by  means  of 
two  plantings.  May  and  July.  The  school  and  home  gardens  of 
Philadelphia,  that  number  8000,  have  led  to  the  cultivation  of 
vacant  lots,  whereby  6000  persons  secured  their  vegetables  in 
1913  at  a  cost  of  four  dollars  a  family.  Many  communities 
conduct  competitions  to  encourage  the  children  to  cultivate 
home  gardens.  The  first  year  Spokane  undertook  this  they  held 
a  fair  at  which  garden  stuff,  valued  at  $15,000,  was  exhibited  by 
the  3500  children.  The  following  year  a  fair  was  held  in  each  of 
the  thirty  school  districts  and  the  winners  at  these  local  fairs 
took  their  exhibits  to  the  central  fair  for  the  final  contest. 

The  success  of  school  gardening  has  led  to  the  demand  for 
agricultural  education  in  urban  schools. 

Agricultural  Education 

School  gardens  and  nature  study  in  the  lower  grades  evolve 
into  agricultural  education  in  the  higher  grades.  The  first  of 
the  city  agricultural  schools  was  developed  at  Menomonie, 
Wisconsin,  by  Senator  J.  H.   Stout.    The  two-years'  course 


198  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

adopted  for  graduates  of  the  elementary  schools  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  county  agricultural  schools  in  Wisconsin.  Boise, 
Idaho,  has  put  agriculture  and  horticulture  on  a  plane  with  the 
other  industrial  studies.  There  is  a  four-years'  course  in  agricul- 
ture, horticulture,  animal  husbandry,  farm  mechanics,  and  farm 
management.  The  school  owns  a  poultry  farm  and  uses  thirty 
acres  of  land  inside  the  state  race  track  for  demonstration  farm- 
ing. The  pupils  who  work  for  eight  weeks  in  the  summer, 
eight  hours  a  day,  are  given  one  year  of  credit  in  agriculture. 
The  seed  mania  is  a  happy  substitute  for  the  speed  mania. 

Home  Credits 

Credit  for  work  done  at  home  is  being  given,  especially  by  the 
schools  of  Oregon.  The  best  measure  of  the  work  done  outside 
the  school  is  still  its  commercial  value.  The  pupils  of  the  high 
schools  of  Portland,  Oregon,  have  received  credit  for  an  amount 
of  work  that  demonstrates  how  boys  and  girls  may  carry  them- 
selves through  school  if  properly  aided  by  the  authorities.  Of 
the  seventy-one  girls  and  thirty-three  boys  who  were  graduated 
from  the  Jefferson  High  School  in  19 14,  twenty-nine  of  each  sex 
worked  out  of  school  hours  and  during  vacations  so  that  they 
averaged  earnings  of  $264  each  in  their  school  course.  The 
working  pupils  of  the  four  high  schools  are  estimated  to  have 
earned  $80,000  in  the  four  years.  The  occupations  ranged  from 
newsboy  and  caddy  to  chauffeur  and  music  teacher.  The 
maximum  earnings  were  $480  for  work  in  a  bakery  and  an  elec- 
trical repair  shop.  The  next  highest  were  $450,  earned  by  a 
newsboy. 

Oregon  is  the  only  state  that  has  recognized  home  work  so 
universally,  but  cities  are  experimenting. 

Leavenworth,  Kansas,  gives  one  unit  of  credit  for  work  in  any 
vocation  regarded  worthy  by  the  heads  of  departments.  St. 
Cloud,  Minnesota,  requires  home  work  for  graduation. 

"Sixteen  units  are  required  for  graduation,  at  least  fifteen  of  which 
must  be  regular  school  credits.  For  graduation  with  credit,  seventeen 
units  are  necessary,  two  of  which  must  be  for  home  or  continuation  work, 
and  for  honorary  graduation,  eighteen  units  are  required.  Three  of  these 
may  be  for  home  or  continuation  work. 

"A  partial  list  of  outside  tasks,  for  which  credit  will  be  given,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 


OUTDOOR   EDUCATION  I99 

'"Granite  or  paving  block  cutting  or  work  in  any  of  the  local  trades, 
shops,  factories  or  industries,  \  unit  for  each  summer  vacation. 

"'Steady  work  on  a  farm,  followed  by  satisfactory  essay  on  some  agri- 
cultural subject,  J  unit  for  three  months. 

" '  Running  a  split  road  drag  or  doing  other  forms  of  road  building  for 
three  months,  j  unit. 

"  *  Judging,  with  a  degree  of  accuracy,  the  different  types  of  horses,  cattle 
and  hogs,  j  unit. 

"  '  China  painting,  oil  painting,  crayon,  burnt  wood,  art,  needle,  or  other 
handicraft  or  home  decoration  work,  with  exhibit,  j  unit. 

'"Three  months'  emploj'ment  in  a  dressmaking  establishment,  J  unit. 

" '  Three  months'  employment  as  nurse,  j  unit. 

"  '  Making  a  canoe  or  boat. 

" '  Installing  three  or  more  electrical  conveniences  in  your  mother's  home. 

" '  Taking  sole  care  of  an  automobile  for  one  season. 

" '  Preparing  one  meal  alone  daily  for  three  months. 

" '  Cooking  meat  and  eggs  three  ways  and  making  three  kinds  of  cake. 

" '  Students  in  the  high  school  who  shingle  the  house  or  paint  the  bam, 
swim  300  feet,  make  the  beds  every  day  for  three  months,  sleep  for  one  year 
in  the  open  air  or  with  open  window,  take  weekly  piano,  violin,  cornet,  pipe 
organ  or  voice  lessons,  raise  one-fourth  of  an  acre  of  onions  or  other  speci- 
fied garden  truck,  clerk  in  a  store  or  do  any  of  a  number  of  other  things  in 
the  home  or  outside  the  school,  will  receive  credit  toward  graduation.'" 

Unless  the  regular  home  work  can  be  credited  to  the  child,  the 
school  will  have  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  home  and  in  all 
cases  ought  to  provide  time  for  study,  so  that  it  may  be  done 
under  expert  guidance.  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  Bridgeport, 
Connecticut,  have  lengthened  the  school  day  so  as  to  provide 
all  the  time  necessary  for  study.  The  lack  of  quiet  homes  in  the 
crowded  districts  has  led  to  the  opening  of  schools  in  New  York 
City  for  voluntary  study. 

Thi*^  system  is  required  by  law  of  the  cities  of  California. 

Vacation  Schools 

The  vacation  school  has  grown  out  of  the  recognition  of  the 
deficiency  of  the  home  and  the  city  street.  The  first  vacation 
school  was  proposed  in  Cambridge  in  1872.  The  first  school 
seems  to  have  been  started  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1885, 
followed  by  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1888.  About  ten  years 
later,  the  larger  cities  were  all  experimenting  with  vacation 
schools,  chiefly  inaugurated  by  women's  clubs,  subsequently 
incorporated  in  the  school  system.     The  efi!ect  of  the  vacation 


200  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

school  has  been  twofold :  the  abandonment  of  text-books  has 
made  it  a  fertile  field  for  pedagogical  experiment ;  the  manifest 
benefits  derived  by  the  children  have  forced  the  consideration  of 
the  desirabihty  of  an  all-year  school. 

The  school  that  was  vacated  has  been  vitalized. 

New  York  City  conducted  thirty-six  vacation  schools  in 
1914.  The  work  is  divided  into  three  departments  :  opportu- 
nity class  subjects,  industrial  subjects,  and  kindergarten  classes. 
The  opportunity  classes  are  designed  to  assist  children  who  failed 
of  promotion  in  June.  There  were  over  14,000  such  pupils. 
Nearly  half  of  them  received  certificates  of  success  for  the  sum- 
mer's work.  The  industrial  subjects  included  a  large  variety 
of  processes  with  the  needle,  cooking,  housekeeping,  and  nursing 
for  girls,  and  bench  work,  Venetian  iron  work,  basketry,  chair 
caning,  and  hammock  making  for  boys.  The  kindergarten  not 
only  relieved  some  mothers  of  the  care  of  children,  but  permitted 
some  of  the  older  brothers  and  sisters  to  attend  the  vacation 
school,  while  the  younger  children  were  being  properly  cared  for. 
The  vacation  school  included  a  summer  trade  school  and  a  sum- 
mer school  for  mentally  defective  children.  The  total  enroll- 
ment of  the  different  vacation  schools  was  about  30,000.^ 

The  vacation  school  has  found  its  logical  sequel  in  the  all-year 
school  of  Gary  and  Newark. 

Open  Air  Schools 

Open  air  schools  have  been  inaugurated  by  many  cities  for  the 
tuberculous  children.  These  have  succeeded  so  well  that  the 
methods  commend  themselves  to  progressive  educators  for  the 
care  of  other  children.  Syracuse,  New  York,  opened  a  class  in 
191 1  for  nervous  and  anaemic  children,  whose  food  and  habits  are 
as  carefully  considered  as  are  those  of  tuberculous  victims. 
Providence  seems  to  have  been  the  pioneer  American  city  in  the 
estabUshment  of  an  open  air  school.  Chicago  now  has  nineteen 
open  air  schools. 

Until  "back  to  the  land"  is  possible,  back  to  the  air  is  helpful. 

'  The  New  York  vacation  schools  were  open  only  in  the  morning.  In  the  after- 
noon there  were  213  centers  of  play,  including  104  indoor  playgrounds,  fourteen  open 
air  playgrounds,  seventy-one  for  mothers  and  babies,  eight  kindergarten  centers. 
There  were  also  sixteen  evening  pla^'grounds.  The  schoolhouses  were  opened  in 
the  evening  for  recreation. 


L-ty  ^^}^ji£*..^^gs^ni!&ismm'3ii^^^sssesm^„  'iw-sf!^s?mm 


The  Operating  Room,  Forsyth  Dental  Infirmary,  Boston. 


OUTDOOR   EDUCATION  20I 

The  open  air  school  at  Montclair,  New  Jersey,  is  an  outgrowth 
of  effective  medical  inspection.  The  children  are  selected  be- 
cause of  their  need.  They  commonly  come  from  homes  that 
are  utterly  deficient  in  hygienic  knowledge  or  care.  At  the 
schools  they  exchange  their  outer  garments  for  those  provided  by 
the  Board  of  Education.  These  consist  in  the  coldest  weather  of 
a  sweater,  knitted  cap,  outside  coat  and  mittens,  a  pair  of  felt 
knee  boots,  and  a  sitting  bag  of  felt.  Arctics  are  provided  for 
the  trip  from  the  tent  to  the  school  building.  Work  begins  at 
nine  o'clock.     At  ten  o'clock  a  cereal  is  served. 

From  II :  45  to  12  the  class  experiments  under  expert  guidance, 
with  soap  and  water. 

The  noonday  meal  follows,  after  which  the  children  engage  in 
the  ceremony  of  brushing  their  teeth.  A  recess  follows  until 
I  o'clock,  when  they  crawl  into  blanketed  beds  for  an  hour's  rest. 
The  afternoon  session  begins  at  2  with  a  five-minute  recess  at 
3,  and  a  light  luncheon  is  served  just  before  they  start  for  home 
at  3  :  45.  The  growth  in  weight,  eflSciency,  and  hygienic  habits  is 
general.  Most  of  the  children  come  from  homes  where  baths 
are  a  summer  luxury,  where  they  sleep  in  unventilated  rooms 
and  frequently  go  to  bed  as  late  as  11,  drinking  coffee  freely, 
and  occasionally  liquor.  The  school  nurse  and  medical  inspec- 
tor assist  the  teacher  and  the  homes  are  visited. 

The  success  of  this  method  has  led  to  the  use  of  a  classroom 
with  open  windows  for  normal  children.  The  teacher  thinks  the 
work  can  be  done  in  one-third  less  time  under  these  conditions. 

An  investigation  made  by  Dr.  H.  Lincoln  Chase  of  Brookline 
indicates  the  physical  advantages  of  an  open  air  schoolroom. 
The  children  of  the  second  grade  in  the  Parsons  School  were 
observed  for  eight  months  in  a  fresh  air  room  and  their  growth 
compared  with  that  of  children  in  the  neighboring  Winthrop 
School.  The  temperature  in  the  open  air  school  was  seldom 
allowed  to  fall  below  55  degrees  in  winter,  while  the  temperature 
in  the  other  school  was  from  65  to  68  degrees.  In  the  former  the 
children  were  protected  against  cold  by  the  usual  wraps  and 
were  given  a  glass  of  rich  milk  each  morning.  The  children  in 
the  fresh  air  room  gained  3.18  pounds  in  eight  mounths  as  com- 
pared with  2.69  pounds  for  the  other  children.  The  fresh  air 
children  grew  1.68  inches,  while  the  children  in  the  conven- 
tional classroom  averaged  .95  inches.     In  the  Parsons  School 


202  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

there  was  no  case  of  contagious  disease  and  fewer  colds  than 
usual.  The  work  was  the  same  except  that  drawing  and  manual 
training  had  to  be  suspended  in  the  fresh  air  room  in  cold  weather. 
This  did  not  result  in  inferior  work. 

Hardy  plants  do  not  grow  in  hothouses. 

The  great  possibilities  of  the  open  air  school  are  revealed  in  the 
Durham  School  for  colored  children  in  Philadelphia.  Little 
negro  children  —  all  below  par  physically  —  are  not  only  given 
luncheon  but  breakfast.  The  day  starts  with  a  shower  bath  for 
the  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  children  that  have  thus  far  elected 
to  enjoy  it.  Then  breakfast  consists  of  hot  cereal,  baked  apple 
or  stewed  fruit,  and  toast.  The  children  have  increased  in 
height,  weight  and  chest  expansion,  while  losing  their  tendencies 
to  anaemia  and  tuberculosis. 

City  children  will  be  fit  for  school  in  greater  numbers  when  it 
is  recognized  that  every  home  is  not  an  Eden. 

Welfare  Work 

The  school's  soHcitude  for  the  child  is  no  longer  confined  to 
examining  his  mental  or  even  physical  progress.  It  must  link 
up  the  school  and  the  home.  The  Chicago  Board  of  Education 
has  created  the  position  of  Dean  of  Women  in  some  of  its  high 
schools.  The  girls  may  thereby  get  the  kind  of  personal  super- 
vision and  counsel  that  they  enjoy  in  colleges.  The  visiting 
teacher  has  been  added  to  the  staff  of  the  New  York  schools  as 
an  intermediary  carrying  to  the  home  the  picture  of  the  child's 
life  in  school  and  bringing  to  the  school  the  home  background  of 
the  child.  In  191 2  the  seven  visiting  teachers  maintained  by 
the  PubUc  Education  Association  handled  11 57  cases. 

The  visiting  teacher  accomplishes  for  the  intellectual  and 
social  Ufe  of  the  child  what  the  school  nurse  achieves  for  the 
physical  life. 

Provision  is  already  made  for  the  special  treatment  of  crippled, 
blind,  anaemic,  and  tuberculous  children  and  for  the  physically 
and  mentally  defective.  Similarly  the  visiting  teacher  can 
minister  to  the  average  child  of  foreigners  coming  to  school 
before  he  learns  English,  to  the  children  who  are  trying  to  get 
their  working  papers,  and  the  children  in  the  ungraded  classes. 
In  connection  with  the  ungraded  classes  the  work  has  proved  so 


OUTDOOR   EDUCATION  203 

valuable  in  taking  children  to  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  placing 
them  in  institutions  and  making  needed  adjustments  in  rela- 
tion to  their  families  and  industry  that  the  Board  of  Education  of 
New  York  City  has  socialized  the  office  by  appointing  two  such 
workers  in  the  department  of  ungraded  classes. 

The  pastoral  call  of  a  visiting  teacher  creates  a  new  attitude 
toward  the  school. 

Truancy 

The  Board  of  Education  of  Chicago  cooperates  with  the  city 
and  with  Cook  County  through  their  courts  and  corrective 
institutions.  The  detention  home  for  juvenile  offenders  under 
examination  by  the  juvenile  court  is  supplemented  by  a  school 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Board  of  Education.  Behind  the 
detention  home  on  a  lot  125  feet  square  is  a  two-story  building 
surrounding  a  quadrangle  80  feet  square.  In  addition  to  the 
school  rooms,  the  building  contains  a  gymnasium,  a  playroom 
for  dependent  children  and  dormitories  for  boys.  There  are 
five  teachers  for  the  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  children  who  remain  in  the  home  from  ten  to  sixty  days. 
Physical  culture  teachers  give  an  hour  a  day  to  supplement  the 
work  of  the  others. 

A  child  goes  on  growing  even  in  jail. 

The  Board  of  Education  has  a  freer  hand  at  the  Parental 
School,  which  was  opened  for  habitual  truants  in  1902.  There 
are  no  acres  in  the  farm  at  Bowmanville,  on  which  are  eight 
cottages  and  a  school  building  of  eight  rooms.  The  truant 
population  in  the  school  has  grown  from  13  boys  at  its  opening 
to  320.  The  school  provides  instruction  from  the  second  to  the 
seventh  grade.  Beginning  with  the  fourth  grade  the  boys  spend 
an  hour  a  day  in  the  shops  and  an  hour  on  the  farm.  Each 
cottage  is  under  the  care  of  a  married  couple,  who  are  foster- 
parents  to  forty  boys.  Military  drill  and  outdoor  sports  are  a 
part  of  the  regime.  About  85  per  cent  of  the  boys,  who  re- 
main in  the  Parental  School  from  six  months  to  a  year,  make 
good.  Only  the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent  of  the 
school  can  release  them  and  then  they  are  on  parole  for  at  least 
a  year. 

The  institution  is  hopeful,  but  still  does  not  imprison  the  real 
culprits,  who  are  indicated  by  the  title,  "parental  school." 


204  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

A  superior  method  of  dealing  with  truants  has  been  worked 
out  in  Chicago.  In  1908  a  room  at  the  Jenner  School  was  fitted 
up  with  work  benches  and  desks  for  twenty-four  boys.  A 
capable  teacher  cares  for  habitual  truants  committed  to  her  by  the 
judge  of  the  juvenile  court.  These  boys  live  at  home  and  can 
earn  by  their  probation  in  this  classroom  the  right  to  return  to 
their  own  schools.  There  are  now  a  dozen  such  rooms  for  truant 
boys.     Eighty  per  cent  of  the  cases  require  no  further  attention. 

It  is  no  longer  necessary  for  a  boy  to  commit  an  offense  in 
order  to  be  taught  a  trade. 

Evening  Schools 

The  development  of  evening  schools  has  progressed  entirely 
beyond  the  vision  of  progressive  educators  of  the  passing  genera- 
tion. The  old  idea  of  the  evening  school  was  largely  to  overcome 
ilUteracy.  There  were  privately  endowed  schools  for  mechanics, 
but  their  function  was  not  supposed  to  be  consistent  with  the 
pubhc  school.  The  conventional  evening  school  is  still  a  place 
where  the  most  elementary  subjects  are  taught  and  is  in  great 
demand  because  of  the  foreign  population  in  American  cities. 
New  York  alone  had  forty  thousand  foreigners  enrolled  in  the 
study  of  English  in  191 2. ^  Foreigners  have  to  spend  two  or 
three  years  in  the  evening  schools  before  they  master  the  lan- 
guage sufficiently  to  enjoy  other  instruction.  The  Commissioner 
of  Education  reported  in  June,  191 1,  an  attendance  of  281,000 
at  the  evening  elementary  schools  for  the  previous  year  in  the 
cities  of  over  10,000  population  reporting.  In  the  secondary 
schools  there  were  about  100,000  students.  Only  33  per  cent 
of  the  pupils  attended  regularly,  as  compared  with  90  per 
cent  in  continuation  schools,  showing  the  importance  of  the 
newer  methods  of  instruction. 

The  most  important  expansion  of  the  old  conventional  evening 
school  has  been  in  the  free  lecture  system  of  New  York  City.^ 

'  Day  classes  for  immigrants  are  also  held  on  Ellis  Island. 
*  See  pp.  252-254. 


OUTDOOR   EDUCATION  205 

School  Savings  Banks 

The  movement  for  encouraging  thrift  among  school  children 
was  inaugurated  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Thiry  of  Long  Island  City  in  1885. 
Over  one  hundred  cities  now  report  school  savings  banks.  The 
greatest  handicap  to  the  extension  of  this  system  has  been  the 
time  required  of  principals  and  teachers  in  doing  clerical  drudgery. 
Elmira,  New  York,  inaugurated  a  system  in  1910  by  which  the 
pupils  simply  put  money  in  their  envelopes  Monday  morning, 
the  teacher  counting  the  money  and  writing  her  own  and  the 
pupil's  names.  The  envelopes  are  then  sent  from  the  principal's 
office  to  the  bank.  About  75  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the 
grammar  schools  make  use  of  the  system.  Three  thousand 
pupils  have  deposited  over  $23,000  in  three  years.  This  system 
has  been  organized  in  Little  Rock.  It  was  initiated  by  the 
United  Charities  and  when  the  School  Board  took  it  over,  they 
added  to  their  membership  a  representative  of  that  organization. 
Six  banks  united  in  paying  the  salary  of  a  manager  for  the  School 
Savings  Association.^ 

The  school  can  teach  both  the  science  of  thrift  and  the  art  of 
spending. 

Museum  Cooperation 

Cooperation  between  the  school  and  the  museum  has  generally 
been  initiated  by  some  voluntary  organization.  The  Buffalo 
Society  of  Natural  Sciences  began  in  1872  to  conduct  field  excur- 
sions for  pupils  from  the  high  schools.  When  elementary  science 
work  was  introduced  into  the  grammar  schools  in  1878,  the  science 
teachers  were  encouraged  to  bring  their  classes  to  the  museum. 
In  1905  lectures  at  the  museum  were  made  compulsory  for 
children  from  the  fifth  to  the  ninth  grades.  The  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Davenport  was  a  rival  in  this  pioneer  work.  Begin- 
ning with  1878  the  school  children  came  to  the  museum  infor- 
mally. In  1902  the  system  was  formally  adopted  and  all  the 
public  schools  were  included. 

The  difficulty  of  transporting  children  to  the  museum  has  led 
to  the  practice  of  transporting  exhibits  to  the  schools. 

More  than  1200  schools  in  Pennsylvania  are  served  by  the 

1  Two  hundred  seventeen  thousand  pupils  in  the  United  States  had  on  deposit 
&  million  and  a  half  of  dollars  in  1914. 


2o6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Philadelphia  Museums.  In  St.  Louis  there  is  a  museum  under 
the  care  of  the  assistant  superintendent  of  schools  that  is  called 
the  Educational  Museum  of  the  Public  Schools  of  St,  Louis, 
growing  out  of  the  World's  Fair  in  1904.  In  1908  the  curator 
reported  one  thousand  diflferent  collections  and  3200  duplicates. 
The  Department  of  Health  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  cooperates  with  the  schools  of  New  York  City  by  inviting 
classes  to  the  museum  and  by  sending  collections  to  the  schools. 
There  are  exhibits  of  water  supply  and  general  public  health, 
including  the  disposal  of  the  city's  wastes  and  the  relation  of 
insects  to  disease.  Thirty-five  thousand  primary  and  grammar 
school  pupils  attended  in  191 2.  As  the  children  can  rarely  go 
to  the  museum,  five  hundred  cabinets  are  in  circulation,  reaching 
one-fourth  of  a  million  children  in  191 2.  The  museum  also 
serves  all  the  schools  of  the  state  through  an  act  of  the  year 
1899,  designed  "to  provide  that  additional  facilities  for  free 
instruction  in  natural  history,  geography  and  kindred  subjects 
by  means  of  pictorial  representation  and  lectures,  may  be  fur- 
nished to  the  free  common  schools  of  each  city  and  village  of  the 
state."  Under  this  law,  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  has 
undoubtedly  acquired  the  most  elaborate  and  beautiful  collec- 
tion of  lantern  sHdes  in  America.^  The  Field  Museum  of  Chicago 
has  been  supplemented  by  a  quarter-million-dollar  endowment, 
the  gift  of  N.  W.  Harris,  to  bring  the  museum  to  the  schools. 
It  was  found  that  22,000  out  of  280,000  Chicago  school  children 
visited  the  museum  in  a  year.  A  special  automobile  service 
now  brings  the  exhibits  to  all  the  school  children  in  their  schools. 
The  schools  now  cooperate  with  most  of  the  other  public 
institutions.  Organic  education  is  the  aim  of  the  greatest 
municipal  educators. 

All-year  School 

In  June,  191 2,  Newark,  New  Jersey,  opened  all-year  schools, 
two  in  number,  partly  to  demonstrate  that  there  would  be  no 
physical  injury  in  attending  school  in  the  summer  months  and 
partly  to  show  the  great  economy  of  time  and  energy.  The 
schools  were  located  in  congested  districts  where  children  had 
had  experience  in  vacation  schools.  The  children  were  largely 
Jewish  and  Italian,  about  2000  in  each  school.     There  was  an 

'  For  library  cooperation  see  pp.  242-245. 


OUTDOOR   EDUCATION  207 

attendance  of  about  90  per  cent.  The  school  year  is  divided  for 
these  children  into  four  twelve-week  terms,  permitting  a  child 
to  attend  three  or  four  terms  a  year  and  to  advance  as  rapidly  as 
he  can.  At  the  end  of  three  years  1000  children  had  gained  one 
year's  time.  Both  the  principals  testify  that  the  health  of  pupils 
and  teachers  has  been  in  no  way  impaired.  On  a  very  few  days 
was  the  heat  serious  enough  to  be  a  hindrance.  More  work  has 
been  done  in  the  open.  The  percentage  of  promotions  has  been 
slightly  higher  than  for  the  rest  of  the  city. 

What  has  become  of  Shakespeare's  boy  who  went  unwilUngly 
to  school? 

Gary 

The  climax  in  the  reorganization  of  the  elementary  school  has 
been  attained  at  Gary,  Indiana,  where  Superintendent  WiUiam 
A.  Wirt  has  revolutionized  elementary  education.  The  average 
school  plant  is  in  use  only  a  fraction  of  the  time  that  it  might  be, 
and  during  operation  represents  about  50  per  cent  efficiency. 
The  Gary  plant  aims  at  100  per  cent  efficiency  for  a  maximum 
school  year.  For  eight  classes  of  40  pupils  only  four  classrooms 
are  necessary.  The  other  four  classes  are  found  upon  the  play- 
ground, in  the  school  garden,  on  scientific  excursions,  in  the 
work  rooms,  assembly  room  or  laboratory.  An  eight-hour  day 
is  substituted  for  a  five-  or  six-hour  day  to  absorb  the  time  and 
energy  formerly  spent  in  chores  about  the  farmhouse.  This 
chore  time  has  become  in  most  cities  what  Superintendent  Wirt 
calls  "street  and  alley  time."  The  two  months'  vacation  of  the 
conventional  school  means  another  loss  of  16  per  cent,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  time  spent  in  recuperation  in  the  autumn. 

The  full  use  of  the  school  equipment  involves  Saturdays, 
Sundays  and  summer  time. 

An  abundance  of  time  is  given  to  recreation  at  the  Gary 
schools,  thus  organizing  the  play  of  the  children  and  making 
the  school  fascinating  as  a  place  of  play.  Since  the  children 
are  at  the  school,  they  all  take  advantage  of  this  as  contrasted 
with  the  use  made  of  even  such  exceptional  municipal  play- 
grounds as  those  of  Chicago.^  The  Gary  school  system  is 
not  yet  able  to  meet  its  full  ideal,  but  it  is  at  work  all  day  for  six 
days  a  week,  the  attendance  on  Saturday  being  voluntary.    The 

•  Appendix  2. 


208  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

teaching  force  also  volunteers  for  service  on  Saturday  at  $.75  or 
$1.00  an  hour,  depending  on  the  fatigue  of  the  work.  The  same 
method  of  compensation  secures  teachers  for  the  evening  schools. 
Instruction  in  athletics  is  to  some  extent  given  by  the  mature 
pupils. 

The  Gary  system  suffers  temporarily,  like  all  the  other  efh- 
ciency  systems,  in  not  having  sufficient  respect  for  the  sub- 
ordinates. 

The  regular  workmen  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
school  plant  assist  in  the  teaching.  This  economical  device  gives 
workmen  continuous  employment  for  twelve  months  in  making 
and  repairing  appointments  of  the  buildings,  uses  the  labor  of 
pupils,  while  furnishing  them  instruction  by  carpenters,  cabinet 
makers,  painters,  plumbers,  sheet  metal  workers,  engineers, 
printers,  electricians,  machinists,  foundrymen  and  clerical 
workers.  Only  union  workmen  are  employed  for  this  instruc- 
tion. 

The  best  tribute  to  this  latest  Hoosier  schoolmaster  is  the  em- 
ployment of  Mr.  Wirt  to  reorganize  certain  New  York  City 
schools,  by  spending  one  week  a  month  in  the  metropolis  at  the 
salary  of  a  big  city  superintendent. 

A  Complete  School  in  Brooklyn 

Mr.  Wirt  began  his  experiments  with  the  New  York  pubhc 
school  system  at  Pubhc  School  No.  89  in  Brooklyn.  The  build- 
ing lacks  a  gymnasium,  an  adequate  playroom,  a  branch  library, 
a  properly  equipped  auditorium  and  other  facilities.  The  school 
was  sadly  overcrowded,  the  upper  grades,  including  twelve  of  the 
forty  classes  in  the  school,  having  the  full-time  use  of  twelve 
classrooms,  while  the  remaining  twenty-eight  classes  had  the 
half-time  use  of  the  other  fourteen  classrooms,  a  small  auditorium 
and  five  cellar  rooms.  The  theory  was  that  the  fifth  hour  of  the 
school  day  was  spent  by  the  children  in  playground  and  audi- 
torium. These  being  inadequate,  they  were  not  only  congested 
whenever  used,  but  in  inclement  weather  nine  classes  were  forced 
to  use  the  five  cellar  rooms  as  study  rooms.  As  a  relief  to  this, 
it  was  provided  that  in  some  instances  two  classes  should  occupy 
the  same  room  at  the  same  time,  in  the  hope  that  these  distrac- 
tions would  induce  concentration ! 


Class  Visit  to  Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburgh  Public  Schools. 


Children  of  the  Botany  Class  Caring  for  the  Shrubbery  on  School 
Grounds  of  the  Froebel  School,  Gary,  Indiana. 


OUTDOOR    EDUCATION  209 

The  whole  method  was  to  compel  the  limited  space  to  provide 
for  the  ancient  inelastic  system. 

Mr.  Wirt  has  boldly  extended  the  four-hour  day  to  a  six-hour 
day  by  using  all  of  the  space  in  the  building  all  of  the  time.  This 
dispenses  with  the  need  of  fourteen  portable  buildings  that  had 
been  proposed.  It  also  provides  for  a  $35,000  addition  to  the 
building  in  lieu  of  $170,000,  which  the  old  methods  involved. 
Sixteen  additional  classes  can  be  cared  for  permanently  by 
adding  to  Public  School  No.  89  a  gymnasium  and  a  swimming 
pool,  two  rooms  for  a  branch  of  the  Pubhc  Library,  equipment 
for  science  laboratories  and  auditoriums,  wardrobes  for  sixteen 
classes,  and  permanent  playground,  drawing  and  music  studio 
equipment.  Without  these  the  building  is  being  used  by  two 
schools  of  twenty-one  classes  each,  alternating  in  the  regular 
and  special  activities.  Six  teachers  take  their  classes  to  the 
auditorium,  where  one  of  the  classes  dramatizes  a  theme  for  the 
entertainment  and  instruction  of  the  other  classes.  The  other 
children  profit  more  than  if  they  were  all  writing  themes.  Each 
teacher  is  responsible  for  one  day  instead  of  every  day.  Teachers 
may  gradually  be  selected  for  their  efficiency  in  regular  or  special 
activities ;  children  may  substitute  the  work  of  one  of  these 
schools  for  the  other,  so  that  the  child  who  is  ahead  in  arithmetic 
and  behind  physically  need  not  mark  time  in  a  stuffy  classroom 
instead  of  increasing  his  physical  strength. 

Teachers  and  pupils  are  not  units  in  a  system,  but  individuals 
in  a  society. 

Mr.  Wirt  asks  why  all  children  should  be  on  the  playground  at 
the  same  time,  why  each  should  have  his  private  school  desk  or 
his  private  auditorium  seat.  Would  we  limit  the  use  of  parks 
to  the  hours  between  three  and  five,  five  days  in  the  week,  two 
hundred  days  of  the  year?  How  many  street  cars  would  be 
necessary  if  each  person  had  to  have  his  private  seat  saved  for 
him  ?  How  many  hotels  would  be  necessary  if  each  person  who 
visits  New  York  had  to  have  his  private  bedroom  and  his  private 
seat  at  the  table  saved  for  him  all  the  year  ?  Mr.  Wirt  says  the 
hotel  room  used  only  four  days  during  the  year  would  be  in  use 
longer  than  the  average  school  auditorium. 

We  let  other  people  use  our  books  in  the  public  library,  our 
pictures  in  the  museum,  our  Pullman  berth;  why  not  use  our 
schools  with  similar  economy? 


2IO  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

In  fifteen  years  New  York  has  spent  $105,00x3,000  for  new 
buildings,  and  still  has  not  provided  an  exclusive  desk  for  each 
one  of  the  750,000  school  children.  Is  it  not  time  to  try  another 
method?  It  costs  $200  per  pupil  to  provide  classroom  space, 
$5  per  pupil  to  provide  play  space,  even  in  congested  New  York. 
The  program  at  PubUc  School  No.  89  would  permit  the  children 
to  leave  school  during  the  auditorium,  play  and  special  work 
periods  for  home  or  other  duties  elsewhere.  The  system  is 
adapted  to  the  varied  occupations  of  different  communities  and 
to  all  the  different  individuaUties  in  the  school.  This  variable 
schedule  permits  the  cooperation  of  all  other  child  welfare  or- 
ganizations. 

The  twentieth-century  school  is  not  only  always  in  operation ; 
it  is  always  in  cooperation. 


CHAPTER   XII 

HIGHER   EDUCATION 

Junior  High  Schools 

The  man  who  graded  the  old-fashioned  school  has  been  dead  a 
long  time.  The  division  of  the  school  life  of  the  child  into  two 
periods  of  six  years  each  instead  one  of  eight  and  one  of  four  is 
accomplished  by  the  organization  of  the  junior  high  school.  A 
three-year  junior  high  school  course  followed  by  a  three-year 
senior  high  school  course  not  only  organizes  the  school  better 
for  the  pupils  that  enjoy  either,  but  tends  to  keep  pupils  longer 
in  school.  Gary,  Evansville,  and  other  communities  find  it 
desirable  to  have  all  the  grades  in  one  building,  so  that  the 
children  will  become  accustomed  to  the  idea  that  education  is 
not  completed  by  the  average  child  at  his  fourteenth  year.  The 
junior  high  school  also  makes  possible  teaching  by  special 
teachers  earUer  than  the  old  system.  This  invites  the  sixth- 
grade  child  to  go  on  to  the  seventh  grade,  where  his  routine  will  be 
less  monotonous.  It  also  encourages  the  ninth-grade  child  to  go 
on  to  the  tenth,  because  he  has  already  become  accustomed  to 
high  school  life. 

The  methods  of  teaching  are  modified  so  that  teachers  of  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  Berkeley,  California,  must  use  a 
part  of  each  recitation  period  to  teach  the  pupils  how  to  study. 
According  to  the  law,  no  child  under  the  age  of  fifteen  shall  be 
required  to  do  home  study.  Another  advantage  of  the  junior 
high  school  is  that  it  is  better  adapted  to  the  physiological  devel- 
opment of  the  child.  It  coincides  with  the  beginning  of  adoles- 
cence, the  child  enjoys  contact  with  several  personalities,  instead 
of  only  one,  and  boys  get  a  larger  measure  of  masculine  instruc- 
tion. 

It  is  strange  how  an  illogical  division  like  that  into  elementary, 
grammar  and  high  schools  becomes  a  superstition. 


212  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

One  of  the  early  junior  high  schools  was  organized  at  Evans- 
ville,  Indiana,  in  191 1.  A  group  of  buildings  occupying  an 
entire  city  block  comprises  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools, 
the  auditorium  and  gymnasium  building,  and  the  manual 
training  school.  The  manual  training  building  also  houses  the 
commercial  and  household  arts  departments,  equipped  for  a  six- 
years'  course.  The  gymnasium  and  swimming  tank  are  fur- 
nished with  locker  and  shower  rooms  for  the  use  of  1500  pupils. 
The  auditorium  includes,  in  addition  to  its  well-appointed  stage 
and  seats  for  1600,  a  Grand  piano,  a  victrola,  a  stereopticon  and 
a  moving-picture  machine.  The  lunch  room  serves  the  pupils 
and  teachers  at  cost.  Fortnightly  matinee  dances  at  five  cents 
a  pupil  are  given  under  faculty  supervision  in  the  gymnasium. 
Both  high  schools  enjoy  self-government. 

Many  a  city  child  never  saw  the  old  central  high  school  build- 
ing. 

The  Garfield  Junior  High  School  at  Richmond,  Indiana,  em- 
phasizes two  main  points  in  its  organization :  an  adjustment  of 
classes  that  makes  it  possible  for  pupils  to  advance  at  different 
rates  according  to  ability,  and  an  advisory  relation  between 
teacher  and  child.  The  teaching  is  done  by  departments,  but 
each  pupil  has  an  advisory  teacher  who  becomes  familiar  with 
his  abilities,  tastes  and  circumstances  throughout  his  school 
course.  The  pupils  entering  the  junior  high  school  have  largely 
decided  for  or  against  high  school  and  college.  They  have  begun 
to  show  their  aptitudes,  and  many  need  additional  interest  to 
hold  them  in  school.  One-sixth  of  the  work  is  therefore  made 
elective,  in  three  courses :  foreign  languages,  English  and  indus- 
trial. 

The  child  is  father  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  of  the  man. 

Self-government 

Experiments  in  self-government  have  been  undertaken  in 
schools  of  all  grades.  A  School  Council  was  organized  in  1902 
at  the  junior  high  school  at  Richmond,  Indiana.  It  is  composed 
of  thirty-six  members,  who  are  elected  by  the  assembly  rooms. 
Primary  and  final  elections  are  held,  the  latter  conforming  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  city  elections.  All  pupil  activities  are 
directly  or  indirectly  in  charge  of  the  council.     It  meets  once  a 


HIGHER   EDUCATION  213 

week,  the  principal  acting  as  president.  Five  standing  com- 
mittees have  charge  of  the  school  life,  each  committee  meeting 
with  a  teacher  as  adviser.  The  pupils  get  experience  in  parlia- 
mentary government  and  civic  duties,  while  actually  managing 
the  school  body.  The  children  of  the  Richmond  junior  high 
school  subscribe  to  a  revised  Athenian  Oath.i 

The  William  Penn  High  School  of  Philadelphia  furnishes  a 
good  example  of  what  girls  in  a  secondary  school  can  do.  The 
authorities  have  gradually  relinquished  power,  until  the  spirit 
of  the  school  nearly  eliminates  questions  of  discipline.  The 
hall  where  250  to  400  girls  do  their  studying  is  satisfactorily 
managed  by  the  pupils.  They  also  have  entire  charge  of  the 
lunch  room  where  2000  girls  are  served  daily.  The  Executive 
Council  of  the  Students'  Association  have  asked  permission  to 
call  all  the  pupils  together,  excluding  the  teachers,  to  discuss 
questions  of  deportment. 

Two  thousand  girls  talking  overtime  in  their  earnest  endeavor 
to  discipline  themselves  must  reassure  the  suffragists. 

The  Social  Workers'  Club  of  the  pupils  sends  out  from  twenty 
to  fifty  girls  a  week  to  hospitals  and  orphan  asylums.  The 
Students'  Aid  Club  does  the  same  work  within  the  school,  visiting 
sick  pupils  or  sending  lesson  assignments  to  absent  ones.  At 
Christmas  time  the  school  unites  in  preparing  presents  for  1300 
of  the  poorer  kindergarten  children  and  the  350  children  in  the 
municipal  hospital.  Principal  William  D.  Lewis  points  out  that 
it  is  not  the  form  of  government  but  the  spirit  that  indicates  the 
success  of  this  community  organization. 

The  students  in  the  high  school  of  Berlin,  New  Hampshire,  are 
responsible  for  the  care  of  grounds  and  buildings,  involving  not 
only  physical  supervision,  but  bookkeeping  and  the  financial 
conduct  of  the  enterprise. 

High  school  pupils  in  the  Los  Angeles  and  Boise  schools  have 
engaged  in  the  actual  construction  of  school  buildings  for  those 
cities.  Cooperative  work  under  the  direction  of  experts  is 
probably  as  valuable  a  form  of  self-realization  and  self-govern- 
ment as  students  can  experience.  This,  however,  is  rather  a 
preparation  for  industry  than  for  citizenship  and  some  form  of 
self-government  of  their  social  activities  is  needed  in  the  training 
of  citizens.     For  this  purpose  the  high  school   fraternity  is 

'  Appendix  i. 


214  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

doubtless  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help.     The  organization  of 
whole  classes  or  schools  on  the  all-inclusive  basis  on  which  society 
is  organized  is  one  of  the  important  functions  of  the  school. 
If  pupils  can  organize  contests,  they  can  organize  cooperation. 

Vocational  Education 

The  old-fashioned  educator  wants  to  keep  vocational  from 
cultural  studies,  just  as  he  wanted  to  separate  the  technical  from 
the  classical  courses  in  the  university.  The  recent  tendencies  in 
municipal  education  are  in  the  direction  of  differentiating  voca- 
tional work  at  the  high  school  period,  but  providing  a  prevoca- 
tional  or  junior  high  school  course  that  will  enable  the  children 
to  go  on  with  any  kind  of  grade  or  professional  training.  A  study 
of  the  age  at  which  children  generally  leave  school  and  a  study 
of  the  psychology  of  the  child  at  that  time  indicate  the  necessity 
of  laying  a  scientific  foundation  for  the  child's  work  in  life. 
It  is  found  to  be  diverting  and  recuperating  to  divide  the  day 
between  hand  work  and  book  work. 

It  is  imperative  for  the  full  growth  of  the  child  that  he  have  all 
of  his  faculties  cultivated. 

If  the  course  of  study  is  enriched  by  the  newer  methods  and 
subjects,  there  is  also  a  better  opportunity  to  discover  the  talent 
of  the  indi\ddual  child  and  avoid  aiming  at  the  hypothetical 
child.  The  original  high  school,  like  the  original  college,  was  a 
training  place  for  the  clergy.  It  was,  therefore,  necessarily 
cultural.  Similarly,  the  majority  of  colleges  and  high  schools 
are  now  essentially  cultural  schools  because  their  curricula  fit 
students  for  the  teaching  profession  rather  than  any  other  occupa- 
tion. The  beginning  of  the  transformation  of  the  high  school 
dates  back  to  the  introduction  of  manual  training  which  took 
place  first  in  St.  Louis  in  1880.  The  Scott  Manual  Training 
School  of  Toledo  and  the  Chicago  Manual  Training  School 
were  opened  in  1884.  Still,  the  superstition  persisted  that  the 
function  of  a  high  school  was  merely  cultural.  Until  recently, 
it  was  very  difiicult  to  break  down  the  prejudice  against  direct 
vocational  training  in  the  public  schools.  The  sudden  efflo- 
rescence of  vocational  schools,  however,  has  its  roots  in  the  past. 
As  early  as  April,  1897,  Superintendent  Randall  J.  Condon, 
now  of  Cincinnati,  uttered  the  following  prophetic  words : 


HIGHER    EDUCATION  21 5 

"A  dream  of  the  ideal  and  yet  a  dream  which  in  the  future  may  become 
a  reality.  .  .  .  There  were  no  longer  Manual  Training  Schools,  as  such ; 
there  were  no  Mechanic  Arts  High  Schools,  no  Commercial  Colleges.  In- 
stead of  these  subjects  being  taught  by  unskilled  teachers  .  .  .  instead  of 
being  presented  in  ordinary  school  rooms,  or  even  school  rooms  especially 
fitted  for  the  purpose,  which  at  best  are  only  imitations  of  the  real  and  so 
have  an  element  of  unreality  about  them ;  instead  of  playing  at  banking 
and  'actual  business';  .  .  .  instead  of  all  this  I  saw  the  industries  of  the 
community  installed  in  such  a  way  that  there  was  an  apprenticeship  depart- 
ment in  each,  or  a  modern  modification  of  the  apprenticeship  idea. 

"The  great  wholesale  departments,  in  leather,  in  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  in  provisions,  in  the  manufactories  of  silverware,  of  watches,  clocks, 
shoes,  etc.,  all  the  great  industries  offered  abundant  opportunity  for  the 
youth  to  not  only  become  familiar  with  the  work  of  each,  but  to  discover 
in  what  special  line  he  had  adaptability.  In  each  of  these  institutions  there 
were  light,  airy  rooms  in  charge  of  the  most  skilled  instructors,  where  useful 
work  was  actually  to  be  done  by  the  boys  and  girls  there  employed.  They 
were  to  be  advanced  from  room  to  room  —  from  the  simplest  work  to  that 
requiring  the  most  skilled  labor.  This  was  not  to  be  done  apart  from  the 
school :  it  was  the  school,  most  effectively  teaching  in  this  way,  and  with 
the  mental  development  of  the  pupils  constantly  in  mind  ;  all  this  work,  done, 
not  for  skill  of  hand  alone,  but  for  the  power  of  mind  generated  and  applied 
through  manual  labor.  And  the  important  point  was  this  :  —  As  any  group 
of  workers  produced  a  product  which  had  a  market  value,  they  were  to 
receive  the  money  value  of  that  product  as  a  reward  for  their  industry  and 
application." 

In  less  than  ten  years  an  elaborate  system  of  vocational  educa- 
tion has  become  nation-wide.  Vocational  schools  may  be  classi- 
fied as  (i)  prevocational,  (2)  industrial,  (3)  vocational,  including 
technical,  commercial  and  agricultural  schools,  (4)  part-time 
cooperative  schools,  and  (5)  continuation  schools. 

Prevocational  Schools 

The  old  manual  training  courses  have  been  evolved  into  pre- 
vocational education  in  many  schools.  The  purpose  is  to  give 
more  preparation  for  those  who  only  finish  the  elementary  course 
or  to  fit  pupils  better  for  subsequent  technical  work.  As  early 
as  1907  the  Agassiz  School  of  Boston  offered  industrial  training 
for  which  33  per  cent  of  the  boys  of  the  sixth  grade  applied. 
Since  1909  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades  have  been 
included  in  the  experiment.  With  the  establishment  of  the 
Technical  High  School  and  the  High  School  of  Commerce  in 
Cleveland  it  was  found  that  provision  had  not  been  made  for  the 


2l6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

children  who  dropped  out  of  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary 
school.  The  Elementary  Industrial  School  was  established  in 
1909  and  met  the  needs  of  seventh-  and  eighth-grade  children. 
It  has  been  influential  in  retaining  children  who  would  otherwise 
have  gone  to  work  and  probably  remained  unskilled  through 
life.  A  second  elementary  industrial  school  has  now  been  estab- 
lished, so  that  the  two  may  be  compared  experimentally,  the 
cultural  elements  being  emphasized  in  one  and  industrial  work 
in  the  other. 

The  new  education  is  experimental,  not  dogmatic. 

The  state  of  Massachusetts  has  equipped  a  Practical  Arts 
School  in  connection  with  the  Normal  School  at  Fitchburg. 
Pupils  from  the  sixth  grade  are  admitted  to  four  courses,  the 
completion  of  any  one  of  which  admits  to  the  high  school  —  a 
conmiercial  course,  a  literary  course,  a  manual  arts  course  and 
a  household  arts  course.  Similar  schools  have  been  established 
in  Indianapolis.  All  the  children  in  grades  seven  to  eight  engage 
in  such  industrial  acti\dties  as  carpentry,  joinery,  repair  work, 
art  metal  work,  printing,  bookbinding,  sewing,  dressmaking, 
art  needle  work,  weaving,  cooking  and  housekeeping. 

Pupils  may  be  transferred  to  another  school  if  they  prefer  the 
conventional  course,  but  no  such  request  has  been  made. 

Industrial  Schools 

The  industrial  schools  are  commonly  designed  to  give  definite 
preparation  to  children  of  fourteen  who  would  otherwise  not  go 
to  the  high  school.  One  of  the  first  of  these  schools  was  organ- 
ized in  Columbus,  Georgia,  in  1906.  Applicants  for  entrance 
must  be  at  least  fourteen  years  of  age  and  must  have  completed 
the  sixth  grade.  Courses  are  offered  in  mechanical,  textile 
and  domestic  arts  and  business  training. 

The  Rochester,  New  York,  Shop  School  is  devised  to  teach 
trades  to  boys.  Its  work  is  so  satisfactory  that  the  work  on  the 
Rochester  school  buildings  demands  all  the  labor  available. 
This  includes  cabinetmaking,  electricity,  plumbing,  printing 
and  carpentry.  The  girls'  school  is  necessarily  somewhat  more 
commercial,  as  their  products  —  miUinery  and  dressmaking  — 
have  to  be  sold  in  the  open  market.  The  lunch  room  service  of 
the  domestic  science  department,  however,  serves  both  the  per- 


HIGHER   EDUCATION  217 

sonnel  of  the  school  and  the  employees  of  neighboring  estabUsh- 
ments. 

"Tom  Sawyer"  seems  to  have  been  quite  a  pedagog. 

The  state  of  Connecticut,  to  meet  the  difficulty  offered  by  the 
children  usually  finishing  the  elementary  grades  at  fourteen  (the 
factory  law  not  permitting  their  employment  until  sixteen)  has 
established  schools  at  New  Britain  and  Bridgeport.  Trades 
allied  with  manufacturing,  building,  contracting,  graphic  arts, 
and  textile  occupations  arc  taught  in  the  day  school.  Twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  instruction  is  academic,  but  related  to  the 
industrial  training.  The  work  is  measured  by  the  market  as  it 
must  prove  to  have  actual  commercial  value.  From  $800  to 
$1200  a  month  is  earned  —  enough  to  cover  the  expense  of 
maintenance  except  for  teachers'  salaries.  It  is  expected  that 
the  apprentices  will  enjoy  a  part  of  these  earnings. 

The  school  is  elastic  in  permitting  any  boy  or  girl  fourteen 
years  of  age  to  enter  any  day  of  the  year  from  his  employment 
or  from  any  grade  in  the  school  system. 

A  continuation  school  is  also  conducted,  offering  training 
half  a  day  a  week  to  those  already  employed.  The  instructor 
visits  the  factory  to  inspect  the  pupils'  work.  A  half-time  sys- 
tem is  also  employed,  open  to  those  who  have  finished  half  of 
the  two-years'  course  of  the  trade  school.  A  high  school  cooper- 
ative department  also  permits  regular  high  school  students  to 
benefit  by  the  trade  school  instruction,  thus  utilizing  the  equip- 
ment to  the  full  and  putting  high  school  manual  training  to  the 
test  of  meeting  trade  and  commercial  requirements.  An  even- 
ing school,  open  six  nights  a  week,  ministers  to  those  at  work, 
although  each  one  is  permitted  to  attend  only  three  evenings  a 
week.  A  vacation  school  is  added  in  order  that  public  school 
students  may  enjoy  the  benefits  of  the  trade  school. 

The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  girls  has  been  designed  from 
the  beginning  and  has  stuck  faithfully  to  the  purpose  of  training 
girls  who  need  the  rudiments  rather  than  equipping  forewomen. 
It  opened  in  1902  with  twenty  pupils  in  a  private  house  that 
could  accommodate  one  hundred.  In  June,  1906,  it  moved  to 
quarters  where  five  hundred  girls  can  be  instructed.  The  pres- 
ent quarters  represent  an  investment  of  $200,000.  The  authori- 
ties have  discovered  what  industrial  opportunities  are  open  to 
girls  of  fifteen  and  sixteen  in  New  York  City.     The  girls  are 


21 8  A\rERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

taught  the  rudiments  of  dressmaking  and  miUinery  so  that 
they  may  have  enough  knowledge  to  meet  the  demand  for  girls 
as  soon  as  the  law  permits  them  to  take  out  their  papers.  The 
first  occupations  discovered  to  be  feasible  were  the  use  of  the 
sewing  machine,  paint  brush,  paste  brush,  and  needle.  The 
school  is  open  all  the  year  so  that  girls  may  come  in  during  the 
slack  time.  There  is  a  probationary  period  of  a  month  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  girl  should  devote  all  of  her  time  to  her  selected 
industry.  Grammar,  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  and  civics 
are  taught,  as  well  as  physical  culture.  A  girl  is  not  permitted 
to  work  without  being  physically  able  to  undertake  it. 

Twenty  girls  are  chosen  at  a  time,  and  for  six  weeks  they  have 
a  daily  one-hour  lesson  in  cooking.  They  also  serve  the  lunch 
to  the  other  girls.     It  is  sold  at  cost. 

The  work  is  graded :  (i)  practice  work  is  ripped  up  and  used 
again,  (2)  fair  work  is  sold  to  the  students  or  needy  institutions, 
(3)  trade  work,  up  to  the  standard,  is  sold  to  the  trade  or  private 
customers.  The  girls  are  thus  put  to  the  test  of  meeting  the 
demands  of  the  market ;  the  money  return  covers  the  expense 
of  material  and  supplies,  for  which  ten  thousand  dollars  had 
to  be  appropriated  in  19 14.  A  placement  bureau  was  organized 
in  1908  that  not  only  enables  the  school  to  locate  girls,  but  to 
keep  track  of  them. 

Scholarships  have  been  necessary  because  of  the  poverty  of 
the  students. 

Boston  has  a  similar  trade  school  for  girls  conducted  five  days 
a  week  throughout  the  year  with  four  brief  vacations.  The 
course  of  study  requires  two  years.  There  is  also  an  evening 
school  in  the  winter  for  girls  already  at  work. 

Springfield,  Massachusetts,  has  introduced  a  valuable  method 
into  its  trade  school.  The  local  school  board  is  the  administra- 
tive head,  but  the  state  of  Massachusetts  requires  a  board  com- 
posed of  men  engaged  in  the  industries.  The  work  is  carried  on 
by  what  is  called  the  "job"  or  "project"  plan.  Each  group  of 
boys  is  given  one  day  a  week  of  classroom  work  related  to  their 
shop  work.  The  remainder  of  the  week  is  devoted  to  the  job. 
Each  job  requires  a  definite  amount  of  estimating,  specifications, 
shop  notes,  writing,  and  drawing.  Instead  of  dividing  the  day 
up  into  periods  the  work  goes  on  until  the  job  is  finished.  The 
boy  thus  becomes  acquainted  with  the  methods  that  will  prevail 


HIGHER   EDUCATION  219 

in  industry.  Before  going  to  his  job,  he  must  have  completed 
all  of  his  written  work.  This  provides  an  incentive  not  known 
in  the  ordinary  academic  course.  The  boys  execute  orders  for 
the  market  and  share  the  profits.  The  teachers  are  specialized 
so  that  the  class  work  is  given  by  an  experienced  teacher,  the 
shop  instruction  by  a  practical  mechanic,  and  the  intermediate 
work  by  a  man  who  has  the  qualifications  of  both. 

The  Altoona,  Pennsylvania,  Vocational  Night  School  has  an 
attendance  of  two  thousand  in  a  population  of  sixty  thousand. 
Pennsylvania  schools  of  this  character  have  two-thirds  of  the 
expenses  met  by  the  state  if  the  school  meets  the  requirements 
as  does  this  one. 

The  trade  school  is  judged  by  the  rigorous  test  of  the  indus- 
trial world. 

Vocational  High  Schools 

On  the  basis  of  these  new  industrial  opportunities  in  the  grades, 
the  largest  cities  are  organizing  vocational  high  schools  for 
students  who  already  have  chosen  their  specialty.  The  Manual 
Training  High  School  of  Indianapolis  still  tries  to  hold  together 
a  student  body  engaged  in  preparation  for  twenty  vocations. 
The  work  is  elective  under  guidance.  The  school  has  two  years 
of  technical  training  in  addition  to  its  cultural  subjects.  Gradu- 
ates of  the  art  department  alone  occupy  positions  as  lithogra- 
phers, illustrators,  designers,  architects,  and  interior  decorators. 
Other  graduates  range  all  the  way  from  the  mechanical  trades  to 
commercial  occupations. 

The  big  Eastern  cities  have  been  pioneers  in  high  schools  of 
commerce,  but  perhaps  Omaha  has  excelled  in  accommodating 
its  curriculum  to  the  needs  of  the  community.  The  training  is 
commercial  rather  than  mechanical  and  provides  for  the  pupils 
who  can  stay  only  two  years,  as  well  as  for  those  who  can  com- 
plete the  four  years.  An  intensive  course  is  given  to  the  two- 
year  pupils  who  do  all  of  their  work  in  the  school  building,  re- 
maining from  8:30  to  4  o'clock.  This  course  corresponds  to 
that  in  the  conventional  business  college.  The  four-years'  course 
embraces  the  usual  cultural  subjects  and  specializes  in  the  com- 
mercial aspects  of  Omaha's  industries.  The  dairy  industry  is 
examined  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  manufactory  and  the 
health  department.     Omaha's  importance  as  a  grain  and  milling 


220  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

center  leads  to  a  thorough  investigation  of  this  industry  from  the 
study  of  the  wheat  field  to  the  examination  of  all  the  processes 
until  the  consumer  is  reached.  Similarly,  the  stock  yards  and 
packing  plants  are  studied.  These  local  industries  are  supple- 
mented by  a  museum  giving  connection  with  commodities  and 
activities  that  are  not  in  evidence  in  the  local  industries.  A 
school  of  telegraphy  has  been  equipped  by  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  Railway  Company  and  the  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph Company,  in  which  actual  messages  are  transmitted.  The 
endeavor  is  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  any  distinctive  local  industry. 

Commercial  education  is  now  something  more  than  an  exten- 
sion of  the  three  R's. 

Los  Angeles  maintains  a  marine  high  school  at  its  seaport,  San 
Pedro.  Under  a  nautical  architect,  the  students  learn  how  to 
build  a  boat,  make  and  place  the  engine,  and  launch  and  run  it. 
Shipping  law  is  also  a  part  of  the  course.  Los  Angeles  prepares 
for  sixty-five  other  vocations.^ 

CooPEBATivE  Schools 

The  first  cooperative  school  system,  modeled  on  the  German 
schools,  was  introduced  in  Cincinnati  in  1906.  Dean  Herman 
Schneider  of  the  Department  of  Engineering  of  the  Municipal 
University  of  Cincinnati,  inaugurated  the  system.  The  students 
alternate  week  by  week  between  the  university  and  the  shop. 
This  method  has  been  appropriated  by  Fitchburg,  Beverly,  and 
other  places,  and  developed  under  different  experimental 
methods.  The  preparation  is  superior  to  that  of  a  trade  school 
in  the  facilities  that  the  shop  offers,  while  the  city  is  spared  all 
of  that  expensive  equipment. 

Dean  Schneider  is  the  expert  adviser  of  New  York's  vocational 
system. 

Fitchburg,  Massachusetts,  offers  a  four-years'  course  as  in  the 
conventional  high  school.  The  first  year  is  spent  wholly  in 
school,  the  next  three  years  alternating  between  shop  and  school. 
The  boys  are  taken  in  pairs  so  that  each  has  the  same  super- 
vision in  both  school  and  shop.  The  boys  receive  apprentice 
wages  amounting  to  $165  for  the  first  year,  $181  for  the  second, 
and  $206  for  the  third.     The  boy  is  thus  induced  to  remain  in 

1  Appendix  2. 


tViiHi  j 

^^^^'VPv^''^^^H 

r  : 
II 

HIGHER    EDUCATION  221 

school.  He  can  earn  more  money  than  if  he  did  not.  Each 
candidate  is  given  a  trial  period  of  two  months  and  at  the  end  of 
that  time,  if  his  parents  agree  that  he  will  continue  for  three  years, 
the  manufacturer  undertakes  to  teach  him  the  trade.  The 
Fitchburg  school  was  opened  in  September,  1908  ;  the  first  class 
of  journeymen  were  graduated  in  June,  191 1.  The  classes 
engaged  in  the  cooperative  work  maintain  their  social  standing 
in  the  school,  holding  their  own  in  the  ball  teams  and  classrooms. 
York,  Pennsylvania,  followed  the  Fitchburg  plan  in  191 1. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  high  school  boys  are  enrolled  in  the 
cooperative  industrial  course. 

The  half-time  school  of  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  is  somewhat 
different.  The  pupils  entering  it  must  have  reached  the  age  of 
fourteen,  but  need  have  completed  only  the  sixth  grade.  In  the 
factory  the  pupils  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  regular  fore- 
men or  workmen,  or  in  the  school  with  their  fellow-students. 
The  curriculum  is  entirely  differentiated.  The  trustees  of  the 
school  retain  full  control  of  the  pupils  while  in  the  shop,  whereas 
at  Fitchburg  the  school  surrenders  control  of  the  pupil  in  the 
factory.  The  purpose  of  the  Beverly  plan  is  to  emphasize  the 
boy's  progress  in  the  trade  and  not  to  make  him  a  cog  in  the 
factory  wheels.  A  trained  teacher  gives  the  instruction  rather 
than  a  foreman  without  pedagogical  abihty. 

The  pupil  cannot  be  exploited  and  the  manufacturer  is  free 
from  suspicion. 

The  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company,  the  leading  industry 
of  Beverly,  has  organized  a  separate  department  for  this  purpose. 
The  company  furnishes  the  equipment,  raw  materials,  and 
drawings,  and  lays  overhead  charges  against  the  school.  Half  of 
the  piece  price  of  the  products  accepted  is  paid  to  the  pupils. 
The  pay  envelope  is  thus  the  boy's  measure  of  his  success  in  the 
school.  The  workmen  have  looked  with  favor  on  the  school. 
More  than  one-third  of  the  pupils  are  related  to  workmen  in  the 
factory.  It  has  met  with  more  sympathetic  support  from  or- 
ganized labor  than  any  other  scheme. 

Employers  must  have  apprentices;  older  workmen  must 
have  protection  against  child  labor. 

The  cooperative  school  for  girls  offers  similar  facilities  in  the 
Woodward  High  School  of  Cincinnati.  A  four-years'  course  in 
the  domestic  sciences  is  given.     By   February  of   the  second 


222  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

year  girls  who  choose  dressmaking  or  millinery  may  specialize 
in  these  activities  under  trade  conditions.  In  the  middle  of  the 
third  year  they  begin  cooperative  work  through  the  cooperation 
of  a  millinery  and  a  sewing  estabUshment,  spending  one  week 
in  the  trade  and  one  week  in  school.  The  same  kind  of  work  is 
done  in  cooking,  but  as  no  estabUshment  is  ready  to  cooperate, 
the  school  is  compelled  to  perform  the  trade  function.  This 
it  has  been  able  to  do  with  a  small  profit. 

A  girl  is  still  handicapped  by  the  traditions  of  industry,  if  not 
of  education. 

Continuation  Schools 

The  German  continuation  school  is  also  being  adopted  in 
America.  Wisconsin  leads  the  other  states,  having  encouraged 
the  estabUshment  of  thirty  schools  in  191 2.  The  state  is  willing 
to  aid  each  school  to  the  extent  of  $3000,  and  forty-five  schools 
are  provided  for.  This  subsidy  is  supposed  to  meet  the  actual 
cost  of  maintenance  for  compulsory  attendance  of  all  pupils 
between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  for  five  hours  a  week. 
The  expense  per  student  per  year  is  only  about  $10. 

The  first  sixteen  thousand  students  were  enroUed  without 
erecting  any  separate  building  and  without  causing  any  loss  of 
employment  or  wages  to  the  pupils. 

Cincinnati  was  the  first  rnunicipaUty  to  create  a  continuation 
school,  as  it  also  provided  the  first  part-time  school.  The  manu- 
facturers' organizations,  the  labor  organizations,  and  the  school 
authorities  decided  in  1909  to  shorten  the  hours  of  labor  without 
decreasing  the  pay.  The  working  week  of  the  boys  was  abbre- 
viated by  half  a  day  in  order  that  they  might  enjoy  the  cultural 
influences  of  the  schoolroom.  The  voluntary  school  of  appren- 
tices (boys  from  sixteen  to  twenty-one  years  of  age)  in  191 2  in- 
cluded 205  machinists'  and  24  printers'  apprentices.  The 
compulsory  continuation  school  is  devised  to  continue  the  educa- 
tion of  children  of  sixteen  who  have  not  completed  the  school 
course.  2300  children  attended  in  191 2.  Only  457  were  given 
certificates  testifying  that  they  had  completed  the  eighth  grade, 
and  one-third  of  them  returned  voluntarily  the  next  year. 

Home  economics  classes  in  connection  with  mothers'  clubs 
meet  for  a  two-hour  session.  1200  women  have  been  enrolled 
in  thirty-six  different  school  buildings. 


HIGHER   EDUCATION  223 

Boston  has  organized  a  continuation  school  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  manufacturers  and  merchants.  The  classes  meet  two 
hours  two  days  a  week  for  ten  weeks.  Pupils  in  the  shoe, 
leather,  and  dry  goods  classes  are  mostly  young  salesmen  in 
wholesale  and  retail  houses  who  are  preparing  for  higher  posi- 
tions. Pre-salesmanship  classes  are  also  organized  for  boys  and 
girls.  Banking  and  household  arts  have  been  recently  recog- 
nized. The  Massachusetts  law  now  requires  compulsory  attend- 
ance of  children  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  at 
the  continuation  school,  when  the  board  of  education  establishes 
it.  The  city  pays  half  of  the  amount  needed  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  such  schools. 

Why  should  we  "cut  the  coat  according  to  the  cloth,"  instead 
of  to  the  customer? 

Massachusetts'  experience  influenced  Indiana  to  the  passage 
of  an  admirable  law  for  continuation  schools.  No  child  under 
sixteen  is  permitted  to  go  to  work  until  he  has  passed  the  fifth 
grade.  All  children  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  must  be 
either  in  school  or  at  work.  If  out  of  employment,  they  are 
required  to  return  to  school.  This  important  period,  which  is  a 
twilight  zone  in  many  states,  is  thus  satisfactorily  covered. 
The  state  subsidizes  vocational  education  for  these  children. 
Daytime  classes  are  to  be  restricted  to  persons  over  fourteen 
and  under  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  evening  classes  to  per- 
sons over  seventeen.  The  local  boards  of  education  provide 
the  plant  and  the  state  pays  two-thirds  of  the  salary  of  each 
teacher  giving  vocational  or  technical  instruction.  The  special 
tax  of  one  cent  on  each  $100  of  taxable  property  in  the  state  is  to 
be  devoted  to  vocational  education.  Any  part  of  the  fund  not 
spent  within  the  year  is  dedicated  to  a  permanent  endowment 
for  the  promotion  of  vocational  education.  Wisconsin  has  now 
passed  Indiana,  requiring  children  up  to  seventeen  to  go  to  the 
continuation  school  four  hours  a  week.^ 

Education  can  no  more  be  measured  by  a  calendar  than  by  a 
yardstick. 

Chicago  is  experimenting  successfully  with  continuation 
schools  supported  by  organized  labor  working  harmoniously  with 
organized  employers  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  apprentice. 
There  are  carpenters'  apprentices,  plumbers'  apprentices,  elec- 

>  For  the  Wisconsin  law  see  Appendix  3. 


224  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

trical  workers,  and  machinists  in  attendance.  The  carpenters' 
apprentices  are  laid  off  during  January,  February,  and  March 
and  are  required  to  attend  classes  in  the  Crane  and  Lane  Techni- 
cal High  Schools.  They  are  given  two  hours  of  architectural 
drawing,  one  hour  of  related  mathematics,  one  of  history  and 
civics,  one  of  English,  and  two  of  shopwork.  The  shopwork  for 
the  first  two  years  is  mainly  in  the  simplest  use  of  tools,  for  the 
third  year  it  is  house  framing,  and  the  fourth  year  stair  building. 
The  other  trades  have  a  similar  curriculum,  but  apprentices 
attend  school  for  half  a  day  each  week  during  the  school  year. 
The  schools  are  hopefully  pouring  oil  on  Chicago's  troubled 
industrial  waves. 

Vocational  Guidance 

Vocational  guidance  must  accompany  vocational  work  if  we 
are  to  save  the  waste  in  industry.  The  first  Vocational  Bureau 
was  founded  in  Boston  by  Mrs.  Quincy  Adams  Shaw  in  January, 
1908.  Professor  Frank  Parsons  organized  the  Bureau.  In  each 
elementary  school  two  teachers  are  appointed  vocational  coun- 
selors, one  to  deal  with  graduates,  the  other  with  pupils  who 
drop  out.  The  Vocational  Bureau  arranged  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  the  counselors.  The  counselors  meet  twice  a  month  to 
discuss  the  educational  and  vocational  opportunities  of  the  city. 

In  February,  19 13,  the  School  Board  of  Boston  organized  the 
Department  of  Vocational  Counsel.  Its  purposes  are  to  gather 
vocational  information,  to  train  counselors  to  help  the  pupil  at 
home,  to  decide  as  to  the  appropriate  vocational  high  school, 
to  follow  up  the  pupil  through  the  high  school,  to  assist  him  in 
finding  employment  when  he  has  to  go  to  work,  to  keep  track  of 
him  in  his  work,  to  help  him  adjust  himself  or  readjust  himself, 
and  to  study  the  social  and  industrial  histories  of  the  young 
workers.  The  counselors  attempt  to  secure  positions  by  cooper- 
ation with  business  men,  originally  using  the  summer  vacation 
for  experiments. 

Professor  Parsons'  successor,  Meyer  Bloomfield,  is  helping  to 
inaugurate  the  New  York  vocational  bureau. 

Grand  Rapids  has  introduced  a  variant  on  the  Boston  system 
under  the  direction  of  Principal  Jesse  B.  Davis  of  the  Central 
High  School.  The  Grand  Rapids  plan  is  not  to  have  a  body  of 
professional  counselors,  but  to  use  the  department  of  English  as 


HIGHER   EDUCATION  225 

a  means  of  drawing  out  from  the  pupils  expressions  of  their 
interest  and  ambitions.  The  themes  discussed  give  some  idea 
of  the  methods  of  vocational  guidance,  in  which  the  department 
of  EngUsh  has  the  help  of  six  teachers  who  are  assistant-princi- 
pals in  charge  of  250  pupils  each. 

At  last  the  round  pegs  are  finding  their  way  to  appropriate 
holes. 

Junior  Colleges 

While  the  high  school  is  being  extended  back  into  the  elemen- 
tary grades  to  catch  more  of  the  great  majority  who  fail  to  use  its 
advantages,  it  is  also  being  projected  forward  to  supplement  the 
work  of  the  universities.  California  passed  a  law  in  1907  giving 
the  high  schools  authority  to  add  two  years  of  college  training 
to  their  curriculum.  Fresno,  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  two 
hundred  miles  from  any  institution  of  higher  learning,  seemed 
to  be  the  logical  location  for  the  first  junior  college.  The  first 
year's  enrollment  of  twenty  increased  by  the  third  year  to  forty. 
The  instruction  has  amounted  to  only  $100  per  capita,  not  higher 
than  that  in  city  high  schools.  A  tuition  of  $4  a  month  is 
charged  to  graduates  of  high  schools  outside  of  Fresno.  This 
may  prove  to  be  the  means  of  relieving  the  great  universities  of 
the  state  of  the  first  two  years  of  work,  the  plan  on  which  the 
University  of  Chicago  was  organized  in  1892. 

Municipal  functions  are  reaching  upward  as  well  as  outward. 

Municipal  Universities 

At  the  crown  of  the  municipal  education  system  is  the  munici- 
pal university,  represented  to-day  by  the  institutions  in  New 
York,  Cincinnati,  and  Akron,  Ohio.  An  academic  institution 
was  transformed  into  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  in 
1866.  In  1908  a  magnificent  group  of  five  buildings  on  Wash- 
ington Heights,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,000,  was  opened. 
The  College  provides  tuition  for  1300  college  students,  2500  pre- 
paratory students,  and  special  instruction  for  over  3000  teachers, 
and  500  evening  students.  Other  more  popular  features  are 
conducted  for  the  benefit  of  the  citizens.  $600,000  annually  is 
spent  for  this  instruction,  which  is  free  to  any  boy  in  New  York 
City. 

Q 


226  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

New  York  will  give  a  boy  free  instruction  from  babyhood  to 
the  doctor's  degree. 

The  municipal  univ^ersity  of  Cincinnati  is  organically  related  to 
the  public  school  system.  It  not  only  has  the  usual  academic 
and  professional  courses,  but  a  College  for  Teachers  with  a 
faculty  of  twenty-seven.  It  provides  a  prevocational  course  for 
high  school  students  so  that  they  may  better  prepare  for  the 
work  of  the  college.  As  intermediary  between  the  college  and 
the  school  system,  is  the  Professor  of  Secondary  Education,  who 
gives  half  of  his  time  as  special  assistant  to  the  superintendent  of 
schools. 

The  organic  relation  of  higher  and  elementary  education  was 
first  completed  in  the  municipal  educational  system  of  Cincinnati, 

The  university  is  distinguished  from  most  others  not  so  much 
by  its  municipal  support  as  by  its  municipal  cooperation. 

"  Cooperation  has  become  the  keynote  of  University  activities,  this  term 
being  defined  as  '  the  plan  for  using  all  existing  local  establishments,  whether 
public  schools,  factories,  hospitals,  social  settlements,  museums,  libraries, 
zoological  gardens,  water  works,  gas  and  electric  plants,  and  street  railways, 
in  the  training  of  men  and  women  for  practical  life  and  service.'  'Training 
in  real  life  for  real  life'  is  this  University's  educational  doctrine  and  'Co- 
operation in  Service'  its  ideal." 

The  training  of  the  students  is  incidental  to  the  protection  of  the 
citizens.  The  Children's  Clinic  of  the  Medical  College  main- 
tains milk  supply  stations  and  visiting  nurses.  The  Bureau  of 
City  Tests  is  in  the  Department  of  Chemistry  of  the  Engineering 
College.  In  one  year  660  samples  were  examined  or  tested  by 
this  Bureau.  Paints  were  detected  containing  benzine  instead 
of  turpentine;  waterproof  felt  was  found  loaded  with  asphalt, 
and  rubber  pump  valves  made  of  a  vegetable  substitute.  Coal 
was  exposed  with  forty-four  per  cent  ash. 

There  are  115  places  in  the  city  of  Cincinnati  and  vicinity 
outside  of  the  university  where  its  representatives  are  regularly 
at  work  teaching,  lecturing,  investigating,  doing  cooperative 
work  or  social  service.  The  university  cooperates  with  seventy- 
four  manufacturing  plants,  construction  companies,  railways, 
and  the  City  Engineer's  office.  Students  receive  wages  for  this 
shop  work.  Forty-seven  per  cent  of  the  students  were  born  in 
Cincinnati,  and  sixty-two  per  cent  are  living  at  home  in  the  city. 
Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  men  have  been  at  work  before  going 


HIGHER    EDUCATION  227 

to  the  university  and  seventy-four  of  them  remain  at  work  while 
attending  the  university.  Sixty-one  per  cent  would  not  have 
gone  to  a  university  had  there  not  been  one  at  home.  Thirty 
per  cent  of  the  women  worked  before  going  to  the  university. 
The  sexes  are  about  evenly  divided  in  a  total  attendance  of 
nearly  2000,  one-third  of  whom  go  to  evening  classes. 

The  municipal  university  of  Cincinnati  is  the  keystone  of  the 
city's  educational  system  where  other  universities  are  millstones 
to  the  secondary  and  elementary  systems. 

The  city  of  Akron,  Ohio,  has  taken  over  Buchtel  College.  The 
engineering  department  follows  the  lead  of  Cincinnati  in  cooper- 
ating with  shops.  Students  are  assigned  to  shopwork  in  July 
and  accepted  as  students  in  September.  Five  years  of  eleven 
months  are  needed  to  finish  the  course.  Students  are  paid  for 
their  shopwork.  The  number  of  students  is  limited  by  the 
industrial  openings  in  Akron.  The  city  is  authorized  to  spend 
not  to  exceed  five  mills  for  the  support  of  the  city  university. 
Ohio  has  thus  a  second  municipal  university,  with  Toledo  ex- 
perimenting and  Cleveland  aspiring  to  organize  its  various 
colleges  into  one  municipal  institution. 

The  complete  training  of  pubhc  servants  and  citizens  of  both 
sexes  is  now  within  the  province  of  the  municipal  school  sys- 
tem. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PUBLIC    LIBRARIES    AND    MUSEUMS 

An  institution  of  culture,  second  only  to  the  public  school  in 
importance,  is  the  public  library.  New  York  State  passed  a 
law  in  1835  providing  for  the  establishment  of  district  school 
libraries.  The  first  step  in  legislation  for  the  establishment  of 
public  libraries  seems  to  have  been  taken  by  the  Hon.  Josiah 
Quincy,  Jr.,  Mayor  of  Boston,  in  October,  1847.  The  city 
council  passed  a  proposal  of  his  to  request  the  legislature  that 
Boston  be  allowed  to  establish  a  free  library  by  taxation.  This 
was  granted  the  following  winter,  and  was  probably  the  earliest 
legislation  of  the  kind  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

The  first  general  state  law  permitting  the  estabUshment  of 
libraries  was  passed  by  New  Hampshire  in  1849.  Two  years 
later,  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  passed  a  similar  law  extend- 
ing the  privilege  already  granted  to  Boston  to  the  other  com- 
munities in  the  state.  The  movement  spread  through  New 
England  and  then  to  those  parts  of  the  Middle  West  that  had 
been  settled  by  New  Englanders.  These  libraries  were  embry- 
onic. The  modern  public  library  dates  only  from  the  formation 
of  the  American  Library  Association  in  1876. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  more  people  read  to-day  than  ever 
before. 

State  Aid  to  Libraries 

Massachusetts,  in  1890,  gave  its  governor  power  to  appoint  a 
commission  of  five  to  encourage  the  establishment  and  growth 
of  public  libraries  in  the  state.  The  results  accomplished  by 
this  Massachusetts  commission  are  entirely  disproportionate  to 
the  expense  to  the  state.  The  towns  accepting  the  provisions  of 
the  law  receive  a  nest  egg  of  $100  each.  This  involved,  in  1891, 
an  expense  of  $3600  for  the  purchase  of  books,  and  a  decreasing 
rate  ever  since. 

228 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  AND   MUSEUMS  22^ 

A  similar  law  was  enacted  in  New  Hamsphire  in  1891  with 
equal  success,  and  now  there  are  thirty-seven  states  with  such 
commissions.^ 

Another  form  of  state  assistance  to  libraries  is  found  in  the 
comprehensive  statute  passed  by  New  York  in  1891,  which 
intrusted  the  free  Hbrary  of  the  state  to  the  regents  of  the 
university,  and  provided  for  assistance  of  various  kinds  to  the 
towns,  the  most  distinctive  result  being  the  great  extension  of  the 
system  of  traveUng  libraries.  New  Hampshire  is  in  the  lead 
again  in  having  had  a  bill  presented  to  her  legislature  during  the 
winter  of  189 2- 1893,  drawn  up  by  a  member  of  the  State  Library 
Commission,  making  it  obligatory  on  a  town  to  vote  on  the 
library  question  every  year.  The  results  of  this  legislation  and 
of  the  long  period  of  education  which  has  produced  it,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  extensive  development  of  pubhc  libraries  in  many 
of  the  states  of  the  country,  led  by  Massachusetts.  There  is 
only  one  town  in  Massachusetts  without  a  pubUc  Ubrary  (Janu- 
ary I,  1915)  and  that  is  Newbury,  which  enjoys  the  privilege 
of  the  Newburyport  Library.^ 

Massachusetts  heads  the  white  Hst,  but  only  forty-four  of  its 
four  hundred  and  four  private  and  public  libraries  are  open  on 
Sunday. 

The  Open  Book 

The  modern  library  is  a  complex  educational  institution  with 
broad  democratic  functions.  It  differs  from  the  modern  school 
system  in  elasticity  and  from  the  ancient  library  in  universality. 
Mr.  Herbert  Putnam  says : 

"The  motive  of  the  old-time  library  was  accumulation;  the  motto  of 
the  present  is  use.  The  former  was  content  to  respond  to  demand ;  the 
latter  seeks  also  to  create  it.  The  constituency  of  the  former  was,  in  con- 
sequence, only  the  student-scholar,  who  knew  the  value  of  books  and  had 
positive  need  of  their  service ;  the  constituency  of  the  latter  has  no  admitted 
limit  within  the  legal  area.  For  it  conceives  the  possible  service  as  extend- 
ing to  every  man,  woman,  or  child,  whom  any  worthy  book  may  serve  in 
any  worthy  way." 

'  For  a  list  of  the  state  library  commissions,  see  Appendix  i . 

*  Two  hundred  and  seventy-five  towns  in  Massachusetts  own  their  Hbraries. 
Thirty-nine  have  free  libraries  in  the  management  of  which  the  town  has  some 
representation.  Twenty-seven  have  free  libraries,  to  which  the  town  appropriates 
money,  but  is  not  represented  in  the  management.  In  the  remaining  eleven  towns 
there  are  free  but  independent  libraries. 


230 


AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


Many  of  the  great  libraries  of  the  world  have  been  simply 
reference  libraries.  This  is  true  of  the  British  Museum,  the 
National  Libraries  in  Paris  and  Berhn,  and  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress in  Washington. 

Every  library  makes  definite  provision  for  books  of  reference, 
and  all  good  library  buildings  include  a  special  reference  room. 
Libraries  which  do  not  give  the  public  admission  to  the  shelves  of 
the  general  library  provide  books  of  reference  easy  of  access  in 
the  reference  room.  To  let  the  pubUc  handle  reference  books  is 
not  enough.  They  must  be  allowed  to  select  books  from  the 
shelves. 

The  first  large  city  library  to  provide  books  on  the  open-shelf 
plan  was  that  of  Cleveland,  which  introduced  this  system  in 
1890.  The  transition  from  the  old  method  was  effected  with 
comparative  ease,  and  they  experienced  none  of  the  difficulties 
put  forward  by  those  who  distrust  the  reading  pubhc.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  books  possessed  by  the  Ubrary  are  freely  accessible 
to  the  pubhc  in  the  general  circulation  room,  the  reference  room, 
and  the  children's  room.  The  remaining  books  consist  largely 
of  dupHcates  and  pubhc  documents.  As  books  are  drawn  from 
the  open  shelves,  duplicates  —  if  they  exist  —  are  inserted, 
there  being  no  "dead"  or  inaccessible  books  in  the  library. 

A  live  hbrarian  cannot  tolerate  dead  books. 

The  tendency  in  pubhc  libraries  to-day  is  to  make  all  the  books 
in  the  branch  libraries  accessible  to  the  pubhc,  but  to  limit 
access  in  the  main  library  to  the  open  shelves.  This  is  done  not 
only  for  the  protection  of  the  books,  but  for  the  protection  of  the 
readers.  It  is  undesirable  to  hmit  people  to  a  card  catalogue 
which  is  generally  a  hopeless  mystery,  but  it  may  be  just  as 
bewildering  to  give  them  access  to  an  unlimited  number  of 
books.  The  open  shelves  are  therefore  used  for  the  display  of  a 
comprehensive  collection  of  books  which  people  can  handle 
easily,  from  which  they  can  borrow  directly,  and  which  can  be 
administered  more  cheaply  and  satisfactorily  than  if  each  book 
has  to  be  brought  out  on  request. 

In  a  good  Ubrary  the  great  preponderance  of  books  borrowed 
are  drawn  by  the  people  personally  from  the  open  shelves. 

Chicago  now  has  450,000  volumes  in  closed  stacks  and  45,000 
on  open  shelves,  yet  more  than  half  of  the  books  circulated  come 
from  the  open  shelves.     This  is  by  no  means  the  limit  aimed  at 


PUBLIC   LIBRARIES    AND   MUSEUMS  231 

in  Chicago,  the  librarian,  Mr.  Henry  E.  Legler,  desiring  a  per- 
fectly elastic  system.  It  does,  however,  accomplish  an  educa- 
tional function  through  the  process  of  suggestion  by  an  expert 
mind,  without  the  pernicious  censorship  exercised  in  the  main 
Boston  Public  Library  and  some  others.  The  public  must  have 
impartial  service,  even  if  limitations  have  to  be  put  upon  the 
borrowing  of  books  by  the  people. 

Ecclesiastical  or  capitalistic  censorship  is  intolerable  in  a 
democratic  library. 

Departments 

Mr.  F.  M.  Crunden  introduced  at  St.  Louis,  thirty  years 
ago,  the  practice  of  supplying  a  large  number  of  duplicates  of 
the  best  novels  to  be  lent  for  a  week  at  a  time  for  a  charge  of  five 
cents  a  volume.  In  this  way  fifty  or  a  hundred  copies  of  popu- 
lar novels  have  been  provided  without  burdening  the  funds  of  the 
library  or  encroaching  on  the  privileges  of  other  readers.  By  the 
same  system  fine  editions  of  standard  novels  have  been  added 
to  the  library.  The  plan  was  introduced  in  Milwaukee  in  1899, 
with  equally  gratifying  results.  It  is  now  in  common  use  even 
in  small  libraries. 

The  Newark,  New  Jersey,  library  has  moved  all  of  its  fiction 
to  a  special  room  on  the  first  floor,  thus  relieving  the  general 
lending  room  of  those  who  want  to  look  at  or  borrow  works  of 
fiction. 

Even  when  all  the  reference  books  and  many  other  volumes 
are  readily  accessible,  the  average  reader  will  need  the  personal 
assistance  of  the  librarian.  Increasingly  catalogues  and  indexes 
are  made  more  serviceable  and  intelligible,  but  they  cannot  give 
the  average  patron  of  the  library  the  omniscience  that  he  requires 
of  the  library  staff.^    A  separa'^e  Technology  Department  with 

1  On  one  day  readers  in  Bates  Hall  (The  Boston  Public  Library)  asked  informa- 
tion on  the  following  subjects :  Polish  books.  Who  predicted  the  greatness  of  New 
York  City?  History  of  the  United  States.  Martin's  History  of  Franklin  County, 
Ohio.  Express  4  g62  000  in  Roman  characters.  Shakespeare's  songs.  Vocational 
schools  in  Boston.  Commercial  law.  Walt  Whitman's  works.  Dead  sea.  Las- 
salle,  the  socialist.  Notable  Americans.  Use  of  egg  albumen.  Home  gymnastics. 
Lowell  Institute  lectures.  United  States  fisheries.  Poem  of  Singing  Leaves. 
Glaucoma  of  the  eye.  Shakespeare's  Henry  VIII.  Emma  Marshall's  novels. 
French  and  German  indexes  of  magazines.  Russian  books.  German  socialism. 
Electric  meters.  Heads  of  families  in  First  Census  of  United  States.  Morse's 
telegraphic    code.     Bunyan    bibliography.     Lieutenant    Totten's    works.    Livery 


232 


AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


expert  in  charge  is  now  maintained  by  many  of  the  larger  libraries. 
The  Newark  Hbrary  conducts  a  translation  bureau  and  gathers 
information  for  the  use  of  local  industries  and  enterprises. 
St.  Louis  and  Boston  each  provides  a  writing  room  with  a 
public  stenographer  who  assists  students  either  by  taking  dicta- 
tion or  by  doing  research  work.  This  is  done  at  the  students' 
expense. 

Chicago,  Cleveland,  and  other  libraries  provide  a  room  for 
club  women  and  furnish  special  facihties  in  finding  bibliogra- 
phies for  club  programs  and  even  in  arranging  the  programs.  In 
Chicago  the  room  contains  special  collections  of  books  and  pam- 
phlets on  citizenship,  the  modern  drama  and  other  subjects  of 
current  interest.  Cincinnati  has  one  of  the  libraries  that  have 
opened  teachers'  rooms.  This  room  in  Cincinnati  keeps  on  its 
shelves  a  collection  of  the  best  children's  books  arranged  by 
grades,  materials  on  children's  Hterature,  courses  of  study  in 
public  school  systems  of  various  cities,  books  on  story  telling, 
and  other  subjects  of  pedagogical  interest. 

Club  women  and  teachers  have  long  merited  special  atten- 
tion from  the  pubhc  libraries.  Now  the  citizen  is  justifying 
exceptional  consideration.  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Detroit  and 
Louisville  have  Civics  Rooms  with  collections  of  appropriate 
books,  current  periodicals,  and  clippings  arranged  in  con- 
venient files. 

Chicago  has  just  put  on  open  shelves  its  foreign  books  to  the 
number  of  30,000  volumes  in  seventeen  languages.     Passaic, 

companies  of  London.  Scharf's  history  of  Texas.  Wool  waste.  Water  gas. 
Class  mottoes.  Stories  for  Jimior  Christian  Endeavor  work.  Poetry  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution.  A  portrait  of  Sir  Francis  Bernard.  Milton  books.  List  of 
public  schools  in  Boston.  City  of  Seattle,  Washington.  Philippine  Islands.  Life 
of  Nero  and  newest  fiction.  Foreign  menus  for  Christmas  dinners.  Boys'  clubs. 
Climate  of  Para,  Brazil.  Statistics  of  deaths  in  Boston,  London,  Dresden,  and 
Munich.  Boston  city  government.  Bigelow  genealogy.  Pictures  of  wood  nymphs. 
Biographies  of  prominent  men  of  to-day.  Who  was  Gassendi?  Open  shelf  system 
in  libraries.  Electrical  apparatus.  Bible  stories.  Bible  characters.  "New 
Thought"  books.  Forestry  bill  in  last  session  of  Congress.  Parks.  Greek  archi- 
tecture. Psychic  treatment  of  nervous  diseases.  Agriculture.  American  Book 
prices  current.  Telegraphy.  East  India  Company.  Laundries.  Coffee-houses. 
English  heraldry.  Greek  drama.  Municipal  elections  in  Boston.  United  States 
consular  service.  Signs  of  the  Zodiac.  Predestination.  English  composition. 
Text-book  on  zoology.  Hypnotic  therapeutics.  United  States  War  Department 
repwrts. 

Many  books  were  asked  for  by  name,  and  numerous  routine  questions  were  also 
asked  and  answered. 


PUBLIC   LIBRARIES   AND    MUSEUMS  233 

New  Jersey,  has  done  some  remarkable  work  with  the  foreigners 
of  that  city.  Five  hundred  books  in  eleven  foreign  languages 
secured  such  a  patronage  that  they  increased  the  circulation  of 
the  library  twenty-two  per  cent,  the  books  averaging  a  circula- 
tion of  twenty  times  each  during  the  year.  At  the  suggestion  of 
the  hbrary  board  a  library  committee  was  formed  for  each 
group  to  aid  in  the  selection  of  books.  These  committees  helped 
in  the  listing  of  books  and  in  conducting  public  lectures,  furnish- 
ing their  own  lecturers. 

The  public  library  is  not  a  blind  leader  of  the  blind. 

Philadelphia  leads,  but  New  York  is  one  of  many  libraries  to 
house  a  library  for  the  bUnd,  New  York  also  maintaining  a 
teacher  of  the  blind.  In  191 2  she  paid  584  visits  to  homes  and 
institutions,  exchanging  nearly  the  same  number  of  books. 
The  New  York  collection  of  5875  books  and  4197  music  scores  is 
sent  all  over  the  Union,  only  8000  out  of  its  22,000  circulation 
being  in  Greater  New  York. 

The  provision  of  periodicals  is  another  feature  of  the  public 
library,  including  usually  several  copies  of  the  popular  magazines 
and  as  wide  a  range  of  technical  journals  as  is  demanded  by  the 
constituency.  Daily  newspapers  are  also  provided  occasionally, 
embracing  those  of  most  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  country.  The 
monthly  periodicals  are  sometimes  circulated  by  the  larger 
libraries  with  restrictions  limiting  the  time  for  which  they  may 
be  borrowed.  This  plan  is  unnecessary  where  they  are  lent  for 
five  cents  a  week,  as  in  St.  Louis  and  elsewhere.  Smaller 
libraries  are  usually  content  with  providing  them  in  the  periodi- 
cal room,  which  is  one  of  the  architectural  features  of  the  best 
library  buildings.  The  periodical  room  draws  the  least  earnest 
but  often  the  most  needy  readers. 

In  large  cities  the  general  reading  rooms  of  the  library  often 
reduce  the  number  of  the  unemployed,  especially  in  cold  weather. 

Children's  Rooms 

There  is  no  more  important  work  done  by  the  libraries  than 
that  with  the  children.  This  has  become  so  significant  that 
every  public  library  makes  architectural  provision  for  it  in  the 
main  building  and  many  of  them  in  their  branches.  A  child  is 
not  only  prepared  thus  to  be  a  better  patron  of  the  Hbrary  than 


234  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

his  elders,  but  enjoys  the  preparation.  Brooklyn  has  one 
library  building  designed  exclusively  for  children. 

The  first  progressive  children's  department  was  estabUshed 
in  Pittsburgh  in  1898. 

From  the  administrative  office  in  the  Pittsburgh  central 
library  missionaries  were  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  city,  even  into 
the  homes  until,  in  1909-1910,  the  Children's  Department  had 
227  book-distributing  centers.  Nine  of  these  were  in  library 
buildings,  the  remainder  being  housed  in  quarters  donated  by 
school  systems,  missions  and  homes.  In  most  cases,  the  city 
was  spared  the  expense  of  maintaining  these  centers.  Play- 
ground reading  rooms,  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Pittsburgh  Playground  Association,  required  of  the  library 
only  the  salary  of  the  library  assistant.  The  children's  story 
hour,  which  is  now  well-nigh  universal,  is  designed  to  be  enter- 
taining and  to  give  an  appreciation  of  Uterature,  but  has  as  its 
ulterior  purpose  the  use  of  books. 

The  Training  School  for  Children's  Librarians  was  the  logical 
outgrowth  of  this  Pittsburgh  movement.  The  children's  rooms 
and  home  story  hours  are  part  of  the  laboratory  equipment  of 
this  school.  The  Cleveland  Children's  Department  was  re- 
organized by  the  first  assistant  from  Pittsburgh.^ 

Miss  Anna  C.  Tyler  in  19 14  reported  for  New  York  story 
hours  in  forty  branch  libraries.  Over  45,000  attended  these 
1929  meetings.  The  boys'  gangs,  that  first  looked  upon  the 
"Story  Lady"  as  an  easy  victim,  have  been  subdued  and  help  to 
organize  the  groups.  A  librarian  in  each  branch  is  trained  by 
Miss  Tyler  to  officiate. 

The  librarian  goes  out  into  the  by-ways  if  not  the  hedges  to 
gather  them  in. 

An  indication  of  the  comprehensive  character  of  the  library 
work  for  children  which  is  done  by  the  BrookHne  PubUc  Library 
is  thus  reported  by  the  Free  Library  Commission : 

"The  most  important  development  in  the  public  library  of  BrookHne  has 
been  an  extension  of  its  work  with  the  public  schools.     The  chief  character- 

»  Cleveland  operates  2  children's  libraries  and  1 1  children's  rooms  in  its  branch 
libraries.  Seven  high  schools  and  lo  elementary  schools  are  equipped  with  chil- 
dren's libraries.  There  are  360  classroom  libraries  and  57  home  libraries.  Forty  or 
fifty  inviting  books  are  sent  to  families  distant  from  the  branches,  after  the  manner 
inaugurated  by  Pittsburgh.  One  afternoon  a  week  a  visitor  meets  a  dozen  children, 
reads  stories  or  plays  games,  and  distributes  books. 


The  New  York  Public  Library. 
Story  hour  on  the  roof  of  a  branch  library,  East  Houston  Street,  New  York. 


Courtesy  of  J.  and  R.  Lamb,  New  York. 

Exterior  of  Roof  Garden,  Showing  Central  Fountain,  Governor 
Flower  Memorial  Library,  Watertown,  New  York. 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  AND  MUSEUMS  235 

istics  of  the  work  undertaken  have  been  :  First,  visiting  the  schools  by  the 
assistant,  to  learn  the  needs  of  pupils  and  teachers ;  conferences  with  the 
teachers  at  the  library,  to  aid  in  the  selection  of  books ;  and  the  preparation 
of  printed  lists.  Second,  issuing  to  teachers,  besides  the  seven  books  al- 
lowed for  their  personal  use,  twenty  or  more  books  each,  drawn  either  from 
the  special  collection  in  the  school  reference  room,  which  contains  many 
duplicates,  or  from  the  main  library,  to  be  used  by  pupils  in  school  or  at 
home,  in  connection  with  their  lessons  or  simply  for  recreative  reading. 
Third,  the  special  assistant  has  charge  of  the  school  reference  room  during 
the  afternoon,  and  assists  pupils  who  resort  there  for  the  purpose  of  looking 
up  topics  of  study  or  for  collateral  reading.  The  room  is  entirely  distinct 
from  the  regular  children's  room,  with  a  seating  capacity  of  ninety,  and 
some  six  hundred  volumes  for  recreative  reading.  Fourth,  systematic 
instruction  in  the  use  of  the  library  is  given  by  the  assistant  in  charge  to  the 
pupils  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  of  the  grammar  schools  and  the  first 
year  in  the  high  school,  who  are  brought  to  the  library  in  classes,  accom- 
panied by  their  teachers.  The  lowest  grade  is  taught  about  the  make-up 
of  a  book,  the  title-page,  copyright,  table  of  contents,  and  index,  and 
how  to  use  them ;  also  the  chief  facts  regarding  the  binding,  and  the  use  of 
the  commoner  reference  books;  the  next  grades  take  up  more  advanced 
reference  books,  and  learn  to  use  the  card  catalogue ;  while  the  high  school 
students  are  doing  some  simple  bibliographical  work." 

The  Buffalo  library  provides  special  reading  lists  for  children 
and  for  teachers  in  the  guidance  of  children.  One  of  these  is  an 
admirable  bibUography  on  American  history  for  young  folks. 
Another  is  an  excellent  list  for  boys  and  girls  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  years  old,  devised  to  effect  the  transition  from  the 
children's  room  to  the  main  library.  A  still  more  elaborate 
list,  called  "Classroom  Libraries  for  PubUc  Schools,"  listed  by 
grades  (to  which  is  added  a  h'st  of  books  suggested  for  school 
reference  libraries),  is  designed  to  assist  the  hbrary  in  lending 
books  to  the  public  schools.  The  Buffalo  Hbrary  also  pro- 
vides reference  books  for  the  schools,  purchasing  them  with  a 
fund  supplied  from  Albany,  on  the  basis  of  examinations  of 
the  schools  made  by  the  Regents  of  the  State  University. 

There  are  no  "Keep  Off  the  Books"  signs  in  children's  rooms. 

Circulation 

Library  circulation  figures  may  be  as  misleading  as  vital 
statistics  unless  we  have  some  basis  of  interpretation.  In 
general,  however,  the  number  of  times  a  book  is  used  testifies 
to  the  extent  of  its  service  in  the  community  and  the  cost  meas- 


236  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

ures  the  community's  appreciation.  Cleveland,  with  a  popula- 
tion slightly  greater  than  that  of  Detroit,  had  a  circulation  in 
1913  twice  as  great  as  Detroit's,  and  the  Hbrary  income  was  also 
double  that  of  Detroit.  Pittsburgh,  with  a  population  less  than 
that  of  Baltimore,  circulated  nearly  twice  as  many  books,  but 
enjoys  an  income  almost  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  Balti- 
more. Boston's  registered  readers  are  almost  the  same  in 
number  as  those  of  St.  Louis.  Its  circulation  is  somewhat 
greater,  but  its  income  is  75  per  cent  more.  New  York  natu- 
rally leads  American  cities  in  circulation  and  most  other  library 
functions  that  can  be  statistically  recorded.  In  1913  the  964,000 
volumes  in  the  circulation  department  went  over  8,000,000  times 
to  New  York  homes.  The  combination  of  the  Astor,  Lenox, 
and  Tilden  libraries,  with  the  development  of  the  branch  system, 
has  doubled  the  circulation  in  ten  years.  Nearly  half  a  million 
of  the  books  circulated  by  New  York  are  in  twenty-six  foreign 
languages.  This  enormous  circulation  does  not  include  Brook- 
lyn, which  issued  over  4,000,000  books  in  that  one  borough. 

Busy  New  York  borrows  more  than  15,000,000  books  a  year. 

Chicago  has  now  passed  Philadelphia  in  home  circulation,  the 
figures  having  reached  4,500,000.  Detroit  has  extended  its 
circulation  by  abolishing  the  requirement  of  the  guarantor  and 
by  extending  the  hbrary  privileges  to  non-residents.  This 
increased  the  circulation  forty  per  cent.  Grand  Rapids  has 
abandoned  the  practice  of  permitting  renewals  of  books,  now 
lending  them  for  four  weeks  instead  of  two,  and  has  increased 
the  fine  for  failure  to  return  a  book  promptly.  Many  Massa- 
chusetts towns  lend  any  number  of  books  on  one  card.  The 
number  of  readers  in  different  communities  varies  remarkably. 
Only  five  per  cent  of  the  people  of  Baltimore  and  13  per  cent  of 
the  people  of  Boston  use  the  library,  while  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, grieves  because  not  more  than  one-third  of  its  popula- 
tion are  library  readers. 

The  millennial  ideal  of  the  hbrary  is  to  have  all  its  books  out 
every  night. 

Next  to  the  foreign  books  perhaps  the  most  useful  addition 
to  the  circulating  departments  of  American  public  libraries  is 
music.  Boston  does  not  lend  its  music  collection.  Milwaukee, 
Pittsburgh,  and  other  libraries  have  sheet  music  to  lend;  Chi- 
cago has  just  opened  a  special  collection  that  promises  unusual 


PUBLIC   LIBRARIES   AND   MUSEUMS  237 

service.  There  are  2100  bound  volumes  of  music  and  1000 
copies  of  sheet  music  in  flexible  covers.^  Cards  are  issued  only 
to  holders  of  regular  library  cards.  Bound  volumes  may  be 
borrowed  for  four  weeks  and  sheet  music  for  only  two  without 
renewal.  The  first  day  this  collection  was  opened,  one  hundred 
special  music  cards  were  issued  and  about  two  hundred  volumes 
borrowed. 

The  San  Francisco  Free  Library  is  to  receive  the  music  collec- 
tion of  the  late  Mira  Straus  Jacobs,  the  composer.  The  first 
installment  of  1600  compositions  are  already  available. 

The  Evanston  (Illinois)  Public  Library  has  a  music  collection 
endowed  by  Professor  George  A.  Coe  in  memory  of  Mrs.  Coe. 
It  was  given  to  promote  the  appreciation  of  music.  The  selec- 
tion is  designed  to  aid  people  at  all  stages  of  musical  culture. 
Music,  pianola  rolls,  and  books  on  music  are  catalogued  together. 
There  are  scores  of  the  important  operas,  oratorios,  and  choral 
compositions,  as  well  as  400  pieces  of  sheet  music;  there  are 
1300  books  on  music,  and  500  piano  rolls.  The  music  room  is 
equipped  with  piano  and  pianola,  where  compositions  may  be 
tried  before  being  borrowed. 

Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  urban  breast. 

Newark,  New  Jersey,  has  a  collection  of  over  50,000  mounted 
and  300,000  unmounted  pictures  for  educational  and  trades' 
work.  These  are  supplied  to  teachers  in  each  of  the  fifty-six 
schools  and  many  artists  and  designers.  In  191 2  the  library 
lent  56,000  of  them.  It  has  also  1000  lithographs,  etchings,  and 
engravings,  1000  large  photogravures  of  the  world's  best  paint- 
ings, and  3000  photographs  of  paintings,  sculpture,  architecture 
and  notable  places.  The  Boston  library  sends  out  2500  port- 
folios of  pictures  annually  to  the  schools.  The  branches  also 
supply  portfolios  containing  about  twenty-five  pictures  each. 
These  illustrate  fine  arts,  physical  and  commercial  geography, 
and  sociological  subjects.  Branch  collections  supply  about 
40,000  pictures  a  year. 

The  graphic  methods  of  the  library  help  to  dispel  the  super- 
stition that  all  learning  comes  from  books. 

'  The  lending  is  facilitated  by  having  the  vocal  sacred  music  bound  in  maroon, 
vocal  secular  in  crimson,  piano  in  dark  blue,  organ  in  light  blue,  violin  in  tan,  and 
chamber  music  in  green. 


238  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Branch  Libraries 

The  most  intimate  service  of  the  pubUc  Hbrary  in  the  large 
city  is  performed  outside  of  its  main  building  through  branches 
and  special  Ubraries.  The  first  free  branch  library  in  the  United 
States  was  the  East  Boston  branch  of  the  Boston  Public  Library 
opened  in  1870.  The  branch  libraries  in  large  cities  are  equipped 
hke  the  central  library  except  for  unusual  books  of  reference  and 
expensive  editions.^  Many  of  these  branches  have  most  of  the 
departments  of  the  central  Ubrary  and  not  a  few  of  the  buildings 
contain  auditoriums. 

The  branches  help  the  library  to  gather  readers  as  well  as  to 
distribute  books. 

Newark,  New  Jersey,  has  a  business  branch  of  the  library, 
located  in  a  building  erected  for  the  purpose,  which  has  been 
leased  for  five  years.  It  occupies  two  floors,  37  by  90  feet  each. 
Among  the  other  services  performed  by  this  branch  there  has 
been  made  an  index  of  the  manufacturers  and  manufactures  of 
Newark.  A  monthly  publication  called  The  Newarker  is  issued 
to  direct  the  attention  of  business  men  to  Newark  and  the  service 
of  the  library.^ 

The  library  has  been  responsible  for  the  organization  of  a 
Special  Libraries'  Association,  now  including  several  hundred 
members  —  librarians  of  banks,  insurance  offices,  manufac- 
tories, railway  offices,  and  scores  of  other  kindred  institutions. 

The  latest  experiment  in  library  buildings  is  the  Brooklyn 
Children's  Branch  at  Brownsville.  The  crowded  condition  of 
the  regular  branch  in  that  section  compelled  the  establishment 
of  a  special  building  for  children.  Their  patronage  of  the  old 
building  was  so  pressing  as  to  make  it  unpopular  with  adults. 
The  new  building,  in  architecture  and  decoration,  is  specially 
designed  for  children.  The  entrances  and  exits  are  separate. 
The  floor  coverings  are  designed  to  deaden  sound.  There  are 
no  push  buttons  within  mischievous  reach  and  rounded  corners 
make  projections  harmless. 

1  The  New  York  library  has  forty-one  branches  of  various  kinds.  Chicago  has 
thirty-two  branches  and  Brooklyn  twenty-eight,  while  Baltimore  has  seventeen  and 
Boston  thirteen.  Pittsburgh,  Detroit,  and  St.  Louis  have  each  six  or  more  elabo- 
rately appointed  Carnegie  branch  libraries. 

'  See  Appendix  2,  for  statistics  of  the  Newark  Business  Branch. 


PUBLIC   LIBRARIES   AND   MUSEUMS  239 


Traveling  Libraries 

A  branch  library  is  superior  to  any  other  circulating  medium, 
but  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  have  enough  of  them  to  serve  every 
section  of  the  city.  The  Boston  Public  Library  has  over  800,000 
books  in  the  central  library  and  a  quarter  of  a  million  in  the 
branches  and  reading  rooms.  The  nine  largest  branches  are 
libraries  of  sufficient  importance  to  average  20,000  volumes  each. 
Boston  serves  30  branches  and  reading  rooms,  62  engine  houses, 
36  institutions,  and  39  public  and  parochial  schools  with  its 
daily  service  by  its  own  delivery  wagons.  In  addition  to  this, 
its  branches  send  out  books  on  deposit  to  1 57  places.  New  York 
meets  its  population's  needs  through  894  stations,  including  fire 
and  police  departments,  schools,  factories,  and  department 
stores.  Brooklyn  has  275  distributing  agencies,  seventeen  of 
which  are  the  Carnegie  branch  libraries. 

The  service  to  business  houses  and  factories  is  becoming  a  very 
important  feature  in  public  library  work. 

A  downtown  service  is  carried  on  by  St.  Louis  in  one  of  the 
big  department  store  buildings.  Messengers  leave  the  central 
library  at  ten  minutes  before  the  hour  and  reach  the  station  on 
the  hour,  so  that  shoppers  and  the  business  community  can  rely 
on  a  prompt  service.  Chicago  furnishes  books  to  twenty-seven 
mercantile  and  industrial  establishments.  These  business 
houses  furnish  the  space  and  the  librarians,  the  Public  Library 
providing  the  books.  Some  of  the  librarians  give  their  entire 
time  to  library  service  and  others  engage  in  clerical  work  for  the 
firm.  The  salaries  of  these  librarians  amount  to  $12,000  to 
$15,000  a  year.  The  burden  on  the  Hbrary  amounts  to  about 
$3000  a  year. 

The  circulation  of  many  libraries  has  been  carried  on  through 
deUvery  stations  where  people  could  consult  the  catalogue,  and 
deposit  and  receive  books.  The  use  of  these  stations  presup- 
poses a  knowledge  of  books  on  the  part  of  the  borrowers  which 
is  not  warranted.  It  is  found  desirable,  when  possible,  to  sub- 
stitute traveling  libraries  for  these  exchange  stations.  Chicago 
has  been  especially  successful  in  superseding  the  delivery  stations. 
Libraries  of  from  500  to  1200  volumes  are  put  in  charge  of 
people  qualified  to  look  after  them,  usually  in  a  store.  Books 
are  changed  once  a  month.     Those  in  charge  bear  the  expense  of 


240  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

putting  in  shelves  and  are  paid  on  the  basis  of  circulation.  At 
Grand  Crossing  a  millinery  store  is  used  and  at  Brighton  a 
stationery  store.  This  method  is  especially  applicable  to  the 
outlying  districts  of  a  great  city. 

"He  who  runs  may  read"  to-day. 

Chicago  leads  other  public  libraries  in  its  delivery  vehicles. 
In  1904  the  first  motor  wagon  was  installed  with  such  success 
that  others  followed  promptly.  The  first  three  machines  dis- 
placed six  horse  wagons.  As  new  branch  delivery  stations 
multiplied,  other  trucks  were  added.  There  are  now  six  of  them 
delivering  books  daily  to  150  stations,  each  motor  wagon  making 
an  average  day's  trip  of  forty-two  miles.  The  capacity  of  the 
wagon  is  2500  pounds.  The  first  three  machines  in  their  first 
year  of  service  only  saved  $100  over  the  cost  of  horses,  the 
expense  running  up  to  $6671.  Now  the  six  trucks  are  operated 
for  less  than  $5000.  Each  motor  handles  nearly  600  books  a 
day,  the  entire  fleet  delivering  over  1,000,000  volumes  a  year. 
Eighty  volumes  can  be  put  into  a  trunk,  thirty  of  which  fill  the 
body  of  the  machine.  In  ten  years  of  service  the  six  motors  have 
traveled  over  750,000  miles.  The  parcels  post  is  found  to  be  an 
economical  aid. 

Mr.  Bostwick,  of  the  St.  Louis  Public  Library,  says  its 
purpose  is  to  send  a  collection  of  books  wherever  it  is  wanted, 
the  only  limitation  being  a  desirable  person  to  administer  the 
neighborhood  library. 

Municipal  Reference  Libraries 

One  of  the  most  significant  links  between  the  library  and  the 
city  is  the  municipal  reference  library,  of  which  there  were 
seventeen  in  1914.^  In  these  days  of  municipal  research  there  is 
no  institution  that  can  serve  the  city  so  directly  and  fully  as  the 
public  library.  It  is  almost  essential  that  the  service  given  to 
city  officials  and  municipal  students  should  be  differentiated 
from  that  offered  the  usual  patron  of  the  Ubrary.  The  library 
cannot  divert  its  general  staff  from  the  service  of  the  average 
citizen  to  give  the  necessary  time  to  minute  investigations  of 
such  subjects  as  city  charters,  lighting  and  water  rates,  city 
planning,  grade  crossings  and  terminals,  fire,  police  and  health 

» For  a  list  of  municipal  reference  libraries  see  Appendix  3. 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  AND   MUSEUMS  241 

departments,  home  rule,  street  paving,  street  railways  and 
franchises,  industrial  and  vocational  education,  and  the  ramify- 
ing subjects  that  bewilder  the  statesman  and  investigator  to-day. 

Baltimore  established  a  department  of  legislative  reference 
by  an  act  of  legislature  and  it  began  operation  January  i,  1907. 
An  advisory  board  was  created  consisting  of  the  mayor,  the  city 
solicitor,  the  presidents  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  and  of  the 
Merchants  and  Manufacturers'  Association.  They  opened  the 
first  municipal  reference  library  in  the  City  Hall.  The  Munici- 
pal Reference  Library  of  Cincinnati  has  been  similarly  estab- 
lished. 

The  municipal  reference  library  is  the  foe  of  provincialism. 

The  Baltimore  and  Cincinnati  libraries  are  not  under  the  gen- 
eral library  administration,  as  are  the  other  munici{)al  reference 
departments.  The  latter  are  generally  located  in  the  city  hall, 
in  charge  of  the  expert  administration  of  the  public  library.  The 
Chicago  Municipal  Reference  Library  may  serve  as  a  type  of 
this  new  institution.  The  library  issues  bulletins  for  public 
information,  drawing  upon  the  collection  of  reports  and  docu- 
ments on  its  shelves.  The  bulletins  issued  have  covered  such 
subjects  as  "The  Rates  of  Fare  of  Public  Motor  Vehicles  in 
Fifteen  Large  Cities,"  "Municipal  Dance  Halls,"  and  "Munici- 
pal Markets."  The  Ubrary  not  only  furnishes  bound  volumes 
to  citizens,  as  well  as  to  public  ofi&cials,  but  is  very  generous  with 
clippings  and  other  ephemeral  but  also  invaluable  material. 
The  way  in  which  the  library  may  serve  unsophisticated  officials 
is  indicated  by  a  letter  the  Librarian,  Mr.  Frederick  Rex,  ad- 
dressed to  the  Council  of  Chicago : 

"The  function  of  the  Municipal  Reference  Library  is  to  provide,  arrange, 
and  render  readily  available  for  the  use  of  the  Chicago  City  Council  and  its 
various  committees,  information,  public  reports  and  data  bearing  upon  the 
legislative  projects  before  them.  We  have  a  very  complete  Library  on 
municipal  government,  containing  among  many  other  things  the  annual 
reports,  ordinances  and  laws  of  other  cities. 

"A  card  index  is  kept  in  our  Library  of  the  subject  matter  of  these  docu- 
ments, and  it  is  our  aim  to  analyze  and  prepare  this  material  so  that  it  may 
be  easily  available. 

"We  desire  to  make  such  material  as  we  have  collected  or  may  collect 
of  the  utmost  use  to  you  and  want  you  to  call  upon  us  for  any  aid  we  can 
give. 

"As  the  City  Council  has  adjourned  for  the  Summer  months  we  would 
suggest  that  you  inform  us  now  of  any  subject  which  you  wish  investigated. 
s 


242  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

We  will  thus  have  plenty  of  time  to  collect  the  information  desired  so  that 
we  can  place  the  complete  data  in  your  hands  when  the  City  Council  re- 
convenes early  in  October.     We  will  tell  you  : 

"First:  What  cities  have  passed  ordinances  or  taken  action  upon  any 
particular  subject. 

"Second  :   Where  similar  ordinances  are  pending  or  under  discussion. 

"Third  :  Where  valuable  discussions  upon  any  subject  may  be  obtained. 

"Fourth:  At  your  request  we  will  write  a  report  upon  any  subject 
indicated." 

The  New  York  Public  Library,  through  its  Library  School, 
announces  a  Municipal  Reference  Course,  open  to  graduates  of 
library  schools.  Courses  are  given  on  municipal  reference  li- 
brary administration,  the  organization  of  the  city  government, 
city  problems,  municipal  bibliography,  municipal  finance,  health 
and  vital  statistics,  supplemented  by  short  courses  and  single 
lectures  by  municipal  officials.  Lectures,  seminars,  and  field 
work  are  included  in  the  curriculum. 

The  public  library  is  becoming  more  obviously  municipal. 


Library  and  School  Cooperation 

The  library  is  too  often  looked  upon  as  an  institution  discon- 
nected with  the  system  of  public  education.  Cooperation 
between  the  library  and  the  school  was  begun  in  Worcester  in 
1880.  Within  two  years  the  movement  had  reached  Indianap- 
olis and  Chicago.  The  children's  rooms  have  done  much  to 
train  children  in  the  use  of  the  library,  before  they  are  gradu- 
ated from  school,  but  cooperation  has  become  very  much  more 
elaborate  since  1880.' 

'  Mr.  Legler  of  the  Chicago  Public  Library  indicates  eleven  methods  of  coopera- 
tion between  the  public  library  and  the  public  schools : 

1.  Classroom  libraries  are  sent  for  local  use  and  home  circulation. 

2.  Deposit  collections  are  lent  for  periods  varying  from  one  semester  to  a  full 
scholastic  year. 

3.  Classes  are  invited  to  visit  the  library  for  instruction  in  reference  work. 

4.  Reference  lists  corresponding  to  the  outlines  of  history  or  other  school  studies 
are  posted  for  easy  reference  and  groups  of  books  are  placed  on  reserve  shelves  for 
like  purposes. 

5.  Story  hours  planned  in  conjunction  with  teachers  are  conducted. 

6.  References  are  looked  up  for  teachers  in  anticipation  of  study  assignments. 

7.  Collateral  reading  is  provided. 

8.  Leaflets  are  used  listing  library  resources  in  aid  of  teachers. 

g.  Trained  librarians  are  placed  in  charge  of  high  school  libraries  and  give 
instruction  in  the  use  and  care  of  books. 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  AND   MUSEUMS  243 

When  the  Buffalo  Library  was  municipalized  cooperation  was 
at  once  begun  between  the  library  and  the  schools.  Ten  schools 
were  chosen  to  give  all  of  their  books  to  the  library  if  the  latter 
would  supply  the  schools  with  suitable  books  equal  to  the  num- 
ber of  children.  This  selection  is  renewed  twice  a  year  so  that 
the  books  may  be  kept  in  condition  by  experts.  The  schools 
also  surrendered  their  city-state  fund  for  books  to  the  library. 
No  cards  are  used  and  all  children  must  have  access  to  the  books ; 
they  may  not  be  used  for  reward  or  punishment.  In  1898 
over  27  thousand  books  circulated  from  163  classrooms.  In  191 1 
the  circulation  had  grown  to  440  thousand,  of  which  prose 
fiction  embraced  less  than  half;  the  classrooms  served 
numbered  861. 

The  child  graduating  from  school  is  invited  by  the  librarian 
not  to  graduate  from  the  library. 

All  of  the  books  used  in  the  Portland,  Oregon,  public  schools, 
except  text-books  and  certain  reference  books,  are  in  charge  of 
the  Portland  library.  Fifty  thousand  volumes  are  in  the  school 
department.  Nearly  28,000  pupils  in  892  classes  were  visited 
in  1913  by  the  staff  of  the  department.  Each  classroom  from 
the  first  to  the  sixth  is  visited  at  least  twice  a  year.  The  higher 
grades  attend  the  central  library  for  their  library  training.  All 
books  issued  to  the  schools  —  even  reference  books  —  are  for 
home  circulation. 

In  February,  1894,  the  Public  Library  of  Grand  Rapids,  while 
still  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Education,  placed  books 
in  the  public  school  buildings  for  circulation  among  the  children. 
In  the  summer  of  1906  six  of  the  libraries  in  the  public  schools 
were  open  for  two  hours  of  a  given  day  each  week  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  books.  Several  hundred  additional  volumes  were 
sent  there  to  be  on  deposit  during  the  school  vacation.  The 
library  also  sends  traveling  libraries  to  the  public,  parochial, 
and  private  schools  of  the  city  for  classroom  work.  The  li- 
brarian and  other  members  of  the  staff  visit  the  schools  and  talk 
to  the  children  about  the  books.  The  school  principals  send 
the  Ubrarian  semiannually  the  names  and  addresses  of  children 

10.  "Intermediate"  rooms  are  equipped  to  render  the  transition  from  the  chil- 
dren's to  the  adult  department  of  the  library  logical  and  gradual. 

11.  Collections  of  prints  and  photographs  are  furnished  to  illustrate  subjects  in 
geography,  history  and  art  biography. 


244  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Avho  are  leaving  school.  The  librarian  writes  personal  letters 
to  these  children,  inviting  their  continuance  of  the  use  of  the 
library. 

A  school  branch  library  was  opened  in  the  Sigsbee  School 
building  on  December  i,  1906.  This  room  has  an  entrance  from 
the  outside  and  is  heated  separately,  so  that  it  may  be  used  by 
the  general  public  outside  of  school  hours.  It  is  open  from  12.30 
to  9  P.M.  On  Saturday  mornings  at  11  a  story  hour  invites  the 
attendance  of  parochial  school  children.  There  are  now  six 
school  buildings  which  contain  branch  libraries  for  both  adults 
and  children. 

Cooperation  between  the  two  educational  authorities  has  made 
it  possible  to  serve  the  public  at  an  expense  of  about  one  cent  for 
each  person  using  the  school  branch. 

Kansas  City  has  put  in  the  Northeast  High  School  a  branch 
library  at  a  cost  of  $15,000.  The  library  is  situated  in  the  corner 
of  the  building  with  a  main  outside  entrance,  as  well  as  an  en- 
trance from  the  schoolhouse.  This  library  will  not  be  confused 
with  a  children's  room  because  the  building  is  the  seat  of  a  social 
center.  Men  and  women,  as  well  as  children,  use  the  swimming 
pool  and  other  facilities  of  the  building.  This  is  undoubtedly 
the  beginning  of  a  more  economical  provision  of  library  branches 
since  the  only  objection  to  a  library  in  a  schoolhouse  is  the  danger 
that  adults  will  regard  it  as  a  juvenile  center. 

If  a  Russian  Jew  goes  to  the  school  library  and  a  native  Ameri- 
can to  the  social  center  dance,  perhaps  they  may  learn  to  ex- 
change experiences. 

St.  Paul  has  sent  out  enough  members  of  its  Hbrary  staff  to 
visit  all  the  grade  schools.  They  expounded  the  attractions  of 
the  library  and  gave  registration  cards  to  those  who  cared  to 
have  them.  Provision  was  also  made  for  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  to  visit  the  library.  Conferences  have  been  held  for 
teachers  and  others  interested  in  children's  reading  and  story 
telling.  This  survey  of  the  schools  of  the  city  led  to  the  expan- 
sion of  eleven  school  deposit  stations  into  library  centers.  The 
service  is  carried  on  economically  by  volunteer  pupils  who 
carry  the  books  back  and  forth,  the  library  paying  the  car  fare. 
The  pupils  are  also  extending  the  influence  of  both  school  and 
library  by  making  their  own  survey  of  Hteracy  in  the  community 
surrounding  the  schools.     Statistics  are  being  gathered  of  the 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  AND   MUSEUMS  245 

newspapers,  magazines,  and  books  read  by  the  different  members 
of  the  family.  A  more  intimate  cooperation  with  the  Hbrary  has 
been  effected  under  the  supervisor  of  manual  training.  Card 
trays  for  school  library  catalogues,  bulletin  boards,  library 
shelving,  and  other  library  furniture  are  now  being  made  in  that 
department. 

How  many  library  patrons  pay  their  way  ? 

The  most  striking  example  of  cooperation  between  the  school 
and  the  library  in  civic  education  is  in  Newark,  New  Jersey, 
where  a  text-book,  "Newark  City,"  is  made  the  basis  of  a  study 
of  the  community.  This  was  published  in  1892  as  a  result  of  the 
accumulation  of  municipal  information  by  the  librarians  aided 
by  teachers.  Mr.  Dana,  the  librarian,  regards  this  as  the  most 
valuable  contribution  to  municipal  welfare  that  the  library  has 
made.  The  Chicago  Public  Library  furnishes  package  libraries 
for  the  use  of  civics  classes,  promoted  by  the  Civics  Extension 
Committee  and  the  Association  of  Commerce. 

The  work  of  the  public  library  is,  of  course,  supplemented  by 
separate  school  libraries.  There  has  been  a  very  remarkable 
development  of  high  school  libraries  in  the  last  twenty  years. 
Some  of  these  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  public  library.' 

Publicity  and  Propaganda 

Having  secured  a  comprehensive  collection  of  books,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  create  an  interest.  There  is  what  may  be 
called  legitimate  advertising  outside  the  library.  It  is  not  un- 
usual for  a  library  to  publish  lists  of  books  in  the  newspapers 
when  any  important  new  accessions  are  received  or  when  some 
subject  of  special  interest  is  before  the  public,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
lecture  course,  convention,  or  some  national  or  international 
event  of  popular  interest.  Placards  and  posters  are  often  put 
up  in  schools,  hotels,  and  other  public  places.  Within  the 
library  there  is  always  provision  for  bulletins,  which  furnish  the 
opportunity  for  the  special  announcements  of  the  library,  but 
are  also  used  for  disseminating  valuable  information  which  will 
indirectly  contribute  to  the  circulation  of  books.  Exhibits  are 
sometimes  held  of  arts,  industries,  or  sciences,  especially  when 
the  library  is  housed,  as  is  often  the  case,  in  the  same  building 

'  See  Appendix  4  for  types  of  high  school  libraries. 


246  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

with  an  art  gallery  or  a  museum.  Some  of  the  smaller  libraries 
provide  various  forms  of  entertainment  and  instruction  for  the 
children,  having  only  a  remote  connection  with  the  primary 
function  of  the  Hbrary,  but  with  the  expectation  that  the  cultiva- 
tion of  an  interest  in  the  institution  will  lead  to  its  proper  use.^ 
It  pays  to  advertise  among  borrowers  as  well  as  buyers. 
The  '125th  Street  Branch  of  the  New  York  Public  Library 
mails  postal  cards  to  patrons  advising  them  of  the  advent  of  a 
new  book  and  stating  that  it  will  be  reserved  until  9  p.m.  on  that 
day.  It  also  notifies  them  to  leave  word  indicating  the  subjects 
in  which  they  are  interested.  The  Queensborough  library  in 
Greater  New  York,  the  Portland,  Oregon,  library  and  others  have 
lantern  slides  made  which  they  persuade  the  movie  managers  to 
show,  inviting  attention  to  books  related  to  the  films. 

A  new  branch  library  in  Rochester,  New  York,  uses  show 
windows  to  display  inviting  books. 

Grand  Rapids,  Jacksonville,  and  other  cities  have  printed 
a  selected  list  of  books  on  the  care  of  children,  entitled  "Better 
Babies."  This  is  mailed  to  the  new  mothers  as  their  names 
appear  in  the  official  record  of  births.  Grand  Rapids  also  posts 
a  series  of  photographs  of  babies  whose  mothers  have  raised 
them  on  the  Ubrary  books.  These  prove  to  be  as  fitting  adver- 
tisements as  any  put  forth  by  commercial  purveyors  of  infants' 
foods.  The  children's  librarian  in  this  city  interests  mothers  by 
attending  all  sorts  of  mothers'  meetings  and  women's  clubs. 
She  is  also  adviser  in  the  selection  of  story  films  for  the  children's 
movies. 

The  modern  library  is  essentially  a  missionary  enterprise. 
Most  of  the  Carnegie  libraries  of  the  country  and  libraries 
generally  in  smaller  cities  contain  an  auditorium.  This  invites 
their  use  for  lectures,  and  they  frequently  become  the  head- 
quarters of  the  university  extension  center.  The  Providence 
Free  Library  was  a  pioneer  in  an  effort,  which  many  libraries 
now  make,  to  meet  the  needs  of  university  extension  students, 
not  only  through  caring  for  the  traveling  libraries  which  are 
sent  with  the  lecture  courses,  but  gathering  special  books  and 
magazines  from  their  own  stock,  and  frequently  purchasing  books 
which  are  in  demand.  The  Pittsburgh  library  not  only  dupli- 
cates the  university  extension  traveling  library  sent  to  it,  but 

»  See  Appendix  s  for  bibliographies  of  children's  books. 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES    AND   MUSEUMS  247 

provides  virtually  every  book  and  pamphlet  mentioned  in  the 
syllabus,  and  makes  special  announcement  for  each  one  of  the 
many  lectures  given  in  the  hall. 

The  library  of  Portland,  Oregon,  has  for  several  years  been 
using  the  auditoriums  of  its  branches  for  lectures  and  social- 
center  meetings.  The  first  year  the  East  Portland  branch  was 
opened  (1912)  65  lectures  were  given  with  an  attendance  of 
over  11,000,  and  45  clubs  met  in  the  committee  room.  The 
central  Hbrary,  completed  in  1913,  contains  a  hall  seating  412 
people.  It  is  equipped  with  moving-picture  machine  and  stereop- 
ticon.  There  are  also  several  smaller  lecture  rooms.  For  the 
year  ending  October  31,  1914,  1584  lectures  and  meetings  were 
held  in  the  Portland  central  library  building  with  an  attendance 
of  94,000. 

The  Rosenberg  Library,  Galveston,  Texas,  has  a  lecture 
fund  given  by  the  founder  of  the  library.  In  ten  years  a  hun- 
dred lecturers  have  delivered  two  hundred  lectures  to  a  total 
attendance  of  85,000.  The  subjects  range  over  most  of  the 
departments  of  knowledge  recognized  on  the  shelves  of  the 
library. 

The  Newark,  New  Jersey,  library  made  provision  for  over 
6000  meetings  in  the  library  in  191 2  with  a  total  attendance  of 
190,000. 

The  Librarian 

The  librarian  of  to-day  is  no  longer  the  mere  scholar  of  the  past. 
He  may  be  a  scholar,  but  he  must  be  an  administrator.  So  com- 
plicated an  institution  as  the  main  library,  with  its  many  depart- 
ments and  relations  to  a  multiplicity  of  outside  institutions,  with 
its  large  staff  of  employees,  and  its  important  financial  processes, 
requires  a  high  degree  of  executive  ability.  The  New  York 
Public  Library  has  a  thousand  persons  on  its  staff.  Mr.  Herbert 
Putnam  says : 

"The  American  librarian  (unlike  certain  of  his  brethren  abroad  or  of  an 
era  past)  recognizes  no  equality  in  methods  which  are  different.  Either  his 
method  is  better  than  his  neighbor's,  or  worse.  In  the  one  case  he  must  con- 
vince his  neighbor ;  in  the  other  he  must  convince  himself.  But  an  effort 
to  convince  there  must  be.  So  he  has  formed  Associations,  with  conferences 
whose  purpose  is  comparison  of  experience  and  the  discussion  of  possible 
improvements  in  method." 


248  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  trained  assistants  furnished  by  the  library  schools  of 
to-day  share  with  the  librarian  of  executive  abiHty  the  honor  of 
increasing  the  utility  of  this  great  democratic  educational 
institution.  There  are  now  eleven  professional  library  schools, 
offering  courses  of  from  one  to  three  years  each. 

Elsewhere  are  many  library  classes.  The  Cleveland  Pubhc 
Library,  for  instance,  conducts  a  summer  school,  in  which  its 
own  attendants  and  candidates  for  positions  secure  preliminary 
or  added  training.  The  Training  School  fox  Children's  Librarians 
at  Pittsburgh  cooperates  with  the  Kindergarten  College.  A 
fee  of  $50  a  year  and  the  time  given  to  apprentice  work  reim- 
burse the  library  for  the  lectures  and  classes,  while  a  special  class 
of  library  assistants  is  being  prepared  to  care  for  the  growing 
work  with  children.  Many  Ubraries  give  training  to  library 
assistants  as  a  means  of  securing  the  needed  workers,  which  its 
finances  would  not  otherwise  permit.  These  students  usually 
spend  a  year,  which  is  recognized  to  be  only  preliminary  to  the 
subsequent  specialized  training  of  one  of  the  professional  schools. 
To  make  a  small  library  successful  to-day,  it  becomes  almost 
indispensable  for  the  librarian  to  conduct  a  training  class. 

While  emphasis  must  of  necessity  be  laid  upon  books  in  the 
library,  as  it  need  not  be  in  the  modern  school,  the  new  spirit 
demands  that  the  library  should  be  made  for  man  and  not  man 
for  the  library.  The  library  is  being  made  not  only  for  man 
but  for  men.  In  St.  Louis  the  librarian  observes  that  over 
75  per  cent  of  the  users  of  the  open  shelves  are  men.  The 
men,  and  women  too,  have  a  right  to  resent  being  treated  as 
children.     The  Chicago  librarian  says : 

"If  the  subjects  of  religion  and  family  ties  and  the  sacred  obligations  of 
life  are  treated  with  contempt,  or  flippancy  or  cynicism,  that  book  is  unde- 
sirable. On  the  other  hand,  there  are  books  which  deal  with  the  sex  rela- 
tions of  men  and  women  as  pages  from  life,  without  reserve,  but  which  have 
a  sureness  of  touch  and  intellectual  grip  that  make  them  more  moral  than 
some  of  the  spineless  novels  whose  false  conceptions  of  life  and  counterfeit 
ideals  warp  character  inconceivably  more  than  a  portrayal  of  sex  delin- 
quency." 

In  Portland,  Oregon,  radical  periodicals  are  restricted  only  by 
the  limited  funds  of  the  library,  though  papers  obnoxious  to 
certain  elements  of  the  community  are  not  flaunted  in  their  faces. 

It  is  the  privilege  of  the  public  Hbrarian  to  provide  milk  for 
babes  and  meat  for  grown  men. 


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PUBLIC  LIBRARIES   AND   MUSEUMS  249 

Museums 

A  museum  is  a  graphic  library.  If  it  were  not  for  our  depend- 
ence upon  the  printed  page  museums  might  rival  libraries  in 
popular  interest  and  support.  As  it  is,  museums  are  just  emerg- 
ing from  the  stage  represented  by  the  old  library  of  scholars. 
Art  museums  have  been  few  in  American  cities  and  they  have 
been  maintained  almost  exclusively  for  "art  lovers,"  who  were 
supposed  to  be  willing  to  pay  their  way.  Scientific  museums 
have  been  less  exclusive  but  more  pedantic.  The  public  has  been 
welcome,  but  must  be  qualified  to  enjoy  the  exhibits.  The  art 
museums  of  New  York,  Pittsburgh,  and  Chicago  have  been 
growing  increasingly  popular.  Their  scope  has  been  broadening ; 
their  sense  of  responsibility  to  the  uninitiated  deepening.  Art 
galleries  are  usually  not  municipal  in  the  sense  that  libraries  are, 
but  the  Philadelphia  Museum  belongs  to  the  city.'  The  museums 
of  Philadelphia  and  Boston  have  been  growing  richer  in  collec- 
tions and  annual  exhibits,  but  have  been  remiss  in  encouraging 
American  art.  Boston  has  a  better  Japanese  than  American 
collection. 

Art  is  jealously  guarded  from  the  profane  in  the  Hub. 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York  contains  by  far  the 
greatest  art  collection  in  America,  but  its  use  is  not  comparable 
to  that  of  the  Art  Institute  in  Chicago.  Organized  in  1879, 
the  latter  is  only  ten  years  younger  than  the  MetropoUtan. 
Its  services  to  the  populace  and  to  American  art  far  outstrip 
those  of  its  wealthier  rival.  The  Friends  of  American  Art  have 
given  the  Art  Institute  the  best  collection  by  American  artists. 
A  gallery  is  set  apart  for  a  continuous  exhibition  of  American 
paintings  and  sculpture.  There  are  also  periodical  exhibits  of 
architecture  and  craftsmanship.  It  is  the  only  art  museum  in 
America,  if  not  in  the  world,  that  is  open  free  Sunday  evenings 
as  well  as  Sunday  afternoons.  Courses  of  lectures  and  meetings 
of  art  organizations,  as  well  as  the  local  school  of  art,  use  Fuller- 
ton  HaU  —  the  auditorium  —  and  the  Ryerson  Art  Library 
constantly. 

Art  for  the  people  and  by  the  people  in  Chicago ! 

'  Cities  which  boast  of  notable  art  galleries  are  Boston,  New  York,  Washington, 
Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  Providence,  Springfield  (Massachusetts),  Worces- 
ter, Buffalo,  Toledo,  Milwaukee,  Saint  Louis,  Syracuse,  and  Minneapolis. 


250  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Serviceable  as  the  Chicago  Art  Institute  is,  it  is  outstripped  by 
the  beautiful  little  museum  in  Toledo,  that,  in  proportion  to  the 
population  to  be  served,  is  the  most  popular  in  America. 
Worcester  has  a  $3,000,000  endowment  for  its  art  museum. 
Cleveland  has  a  charming  building  in  Wade  Park.  The  Art 
Museums  of  Buffalo  and  Saint  Louis  are  similarly  located.  The 
St.  Louis  building  is  a  perquisite  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposition 
and  so  far  from  being  deserted  because  of  its  remoteness  from 
the  center  of  population,  the  patronage  is  far  beyond  that  of  the 
old  centrally  located  museum. 

The  helplessness  of  the  average  visitor  is  reHeved  in  Boston, 
New  York,  and  Chicago  by  the  guidance  of  docents. 

Among  the  cities  which  have  museums  in  connection  with  the 
library  are  Woburn  (Massachusetts),  Milwaukee,  Dayton,  and 
Newark  (New  Jersey).  Important  museums  of  natural  history 
may  be  found  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  Daven- 
port. The  most  pretentious  of  these  is  the  Natural  History 
Museum,^  west  of  Central  Park  in  New  York,  the  extensive 
grounds  and  buildings  of  which  belong  to  the  city,  while  the 
trustees,  the  city,  and  private  subscriptions  provide  the  funds. 
The  Field  Columbian  Museum,  in  Jackson  Park,  Chicago,  has  a 
more  modest  counterpart  in  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in 
Lincoln  Park  on  the  North  Side,  and  is  destined  soon  to  have 
itself  a  more  convenient  and  magnificent  edifice  in  Grant  Park. 
Among  the  smaller  cities  of  the  country,  Davenport  stands  con- 
spicuous as  having  an  unusually  large  and  fine  collection  of 
natural  history  specimens  housed  in  a  special  building,  which  has 
long  since  proved  so  inadequate  as  to  necessitate  an  annex  in  the 
form  of  a  large  structure  formerly  used  as  a  church,  at  least 
twice  the  size  of  the  original  building. 

A  museum  can  be  made  as  vital  to-day  as  a  zoological  garden. 

Children's  Museums 

In  addition  to  the  cooperation  of  school  and  museum,  the 
children's  needs  are  being  met  by  children's  museums.  The 
pioneer  is  the  branch  of  the  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences, established  in  1899.  The  city  has  erected  a  new  building 
at  a  cost  of  $175,000  for  this  museum.     It  enjoys  an  attendance 

'  See  p.  206. 


PUBLIC  LIBRARIES   AND   MUSEUMS  251 

of  over  100,000  a  year.  The  venerable  Smithsonian  Institution 
in  Washington  has  a  children's  room. 

The  director  of  the  museum  at  St.  Johnsbury,  Vermont,  be- 
came the  curator  of  the  Children's  Museum  in  Boston.  Miss 
Delia  I.  Griffin  represents  in  the  museum  world  the  type  of 
educator  that  is  found  at  the  head  of  our  most  democratic  li- 
braries. The  museum  is  to  her  a  focal  point  for  all  outdoors. 
Birds,  beasts,  and  flowers  studied  on  excursions  are  the  excuse 
for  tolerating  the  collections  of  the  museum.  The  wonderful 
groupings  of  stuffed  animals  to  be  seen  at  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  are  more  than  rivaled  by  the  living  discoveries 
of  these  juvenile  museum  patrons.  The  Boston  Children's 
Museum  is  happily  located  in  Jamaica  Plain  within  range  of  the 
natural  beauties  and  wonders  of  Frankhn  Park  and  the  Arnold 
Arboretum. 

When  children  have  learned  to  read  the  book  of  Nature,  the 
library  and  the  museum  will  be  one. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SOCIAL    CENTERS 

It  is  not  often  that  a  new  municipal  function  owes  its  inception 
and  development  to  one  man.  Colonel  Waring's  name  occurs 
to  any  one  who  is  familiar  with  street  cleaning  in  America.  Dr. 
Henry  M.  Leipziger  is  the  father  of  the  free  lecture  movement. 
William  A.  Wirt  is  responsible  for  the  all-day  all-year  school. 
These  are  all  revolutionary  expressions  of  older  municipal 
activities.  Edward  J.  Ward  is  the  evangelist  of  a  new  medium 
of  municipal  life  —  the  social  center.  The  old  village  school- 
house  was  a  center  of  life  in  the  community  in  the  days  when 
the  community  was  self-centered.  Since  urban  life  began  to  be 
compUcated  and  disintegrated  there  has  been  no  such  focus  of 
its  social  life.  For  twenty  years  people  have  been  groping 
toward  the  organization  of  the  neighborhood.  Schoolhouses 
have  been  used  for  night  schools,  but  that  is  in  harmony  with  the 
idea  that  their  purpose  is  to  serve  those  who  have  not  been 
graduated. 

When  young  people  have  left  school,  they  have  left  it  finally, 
and  too  often  gladly. 

Free  Lectures 

Before  the  larger  use  of  the  schoolhouse  had  been  conceived 
a  free  lecture  course  was  established  in  New  York  City  in  1888. 
During  the  first  season  186  lectures  were  given  at  six  centers, 
the  attendance  being  22,000.  When  Dr.  Henry  M.  Leipziger 
took  charge  of  the  system  in  1890  there  was  an  immediate  ad- 
vance so  that  78,000  people  attended  the  lectures  in  the  following 
season.  For  the  year  closing  May  i,  1913,  Dr.  Leipziger  re- 
ports over  700  lecturers  speaking  on  nearly  1800  topics  before 
5000  audiences  at  172  lecture  centers.  The  total  attendance 
was  1,138,702.  The  range  of  subjects  is  bewildering,  including 
especially  literature,  history,  sociology,  art,  general  and  applied 

252 


SOCIAL  CENTERS  253 

science,  descriptive  geography,  and  lectures  in  Italian,  Yiddish 
and  German.  This  system  has  been  developed  with  very  in- 
adequate funds  and  with  caution,  due  to  the  prejudice  against 
the  consideration  of  religious  and  political  questions.  In  the 
first  instance  these  lectures  have  had  to  be  popular  and  for  the 
most  part  illustrated  by  lantern  slides.  The  public  has  been 
trained  in  New  York  by  Dr.  Leipziger's  wise  pedagogy  so  that 
they  have  gone  on  from  stereopticon  lectures  to  those  without 
illustrations,  from  single  lectures  to  courses,  until  it  has  been 
possible  to  give  a  course  of  twenty-eight  lectures  with  collateral 
reading  and  examination.     The  report  for  1913  says : 

"  It  is  a  perfectly  logical  step,  from  these  weekly  discussions  on  subjects 
relating  to  government  to  neighborhood  meetings  to  consider  local,  state 
and  national  affairs,  to  meet  the  local  or  municipal  officials  to  discuss  city 
conditions,  and  then  to  have  political  meetings  in  these  schoolhouses.  The 
Board  of  Education  sympathizes  with  this  new  use  of  the  schools,  for  last 
fall,  with  its  sanction,  the  schoolhouses  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
great  political  parties.  Many  feared  that  this  would  be  a  dangerous  step, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  progressive  and  fitting 
uses  of  the  schoolhouse." 

Other  cities  have  followed  the  lead  of  New  York,  notably 
Milwaukee,  from  which  the  free  lecture  movement  spread  to 
Wisconsin  through  the  University  Extension  Department  of 
the  State  University. 

Free  lecture  auditors  are  not  under  the  compulsory  school 
law. 

It  has  been  the  practice  for  cities  to  permit  the  schoolhouse 
to  be  used  as  a  lecture  center,  especially  in  the  large  number  of 
cities  that  possess  high  school  auditoriums.  These  lectures 
have  generally  been  conducted  by  teachers'  associations  or 
women's  clubs  and  have  been  supported  by  the  patrons.  Free 
lectures,  paid  for  by  the  taxpayers,  have  been  less  general,  but 
in  many  places  have  constituted,  as  in  New  York,  the  bridge 
from  the  hermetically-sealed  schoolhouse  to  the  social  center. 
The  intellectual  atmosphere  of  the  historical  American  school- 
house  is  like  the  air  that  the  Health  Commissioner  of  Indiana 
said  he  found  in  some  of  their  oldest  buildings,  that  must  have 
been  built  in  originally. 

The  ventilation  of  the  educational  system  has  accompanied 
the  illumination  of  the  public  schoolhouse  for  free  lectures  and  of 
the  public  by  free  lectures. 


254  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

It  is  contended  that  the  public  lecture  system,  now  in  existence 
for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  has  resulted  in  —  "(i)  continuation 
of  systematic  study,  (2)  Americanization  of  immigrants,  (3)  im- 
provement of  sanitation  and  health,  (4)  increased  interest  in 
the  city's  government,  (5)  the  formation  of  people's  forums  for 
discussion  of  social  and  economic  questions,  (6)  greater  efficiency 
and  earning  power,  (7)  appreciation  of  art  and  science  museums, 
(8)  improved  reading  taste  of  the  pubUc,  (9)  wider  and  larger 
interest  in  the  finer  things  of  life."  It  has  been  still  more 
remarkable  in  persuading  men  to  attend  lectures.  Whether 
because  they  are  free  or  in  a  pubUc  building  the  percentage  of 
men  in  attendance  is  much  higher  than  at  other  serious  lectures. 

The  idea  of  school  extension  was  borrowed  from  the  English 
imiversity  extension  movement.  While  the  latter  has  flourished 
in  some  parts  of  America,  its  most  popular  fruits  are  found  in 
the  American  school  extension  movement,  in  which  New  York 
leads. 

Chicago  School  Extension 

The  vacation  school  movement  in  Chicago,  promoted  by 
the  Playground  Committee  of  the  Women's  Clubs,  indicated 
the  necessity  of  the  wider  use  of  the  schools,  and  a  vacation 
school  committee  was  appointed  in  1898.  As  these  voluntarily 
supported  vacation  schools  began  to  reveal  the  possibilities 
of  the  schoolhouse,  a  school  extension  committee  was  organized 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  to  agitate  for  what  is 
now  known  as  the  social  center.  Legislative  restrictions  ham- 
pered the  work  in  Chicago  until  1911. 

With  twenty-five  millions  invested  in  school  property,  Chicago 
had  to  ask  the  citizens  of  Southern,  Central  and  Northern 
Illinois  through  their  legislative  representatives  for  permission 
to  use  its  own  schoolhouses. 

Meanwhile,  a  local  newspaper  conducted  free  lectures,  but 
recreation  centers  were  not  opened  by  the  Board  of  Education 
until  191 1.  In  1913  Chicago  had  twenty-four  social  centers. 
In  spite  of  the  slow  development  of  the  social  center,  Chicago  has 
benefited  by  a  private  organization,  which  has  endeavored  to 
correlate  the  educational  and  social  facilities  of  the  city.  The 
Council  for  Library  and  Museum  Extension,  organized  to  give 
publicity    to    Chicago's    educational    opportunities,    issues    a 


SOCIAL   CENTERS  255 

monthly  bulletin  indicating  the  daily  lectures  and  entertain- 
ments, exhibitions  and  conventions.  It  tells  of  the  work  of  the 
Municipal  Reference  Library  and  the  other  libraries,  pubUc  and 
private,  of  the  city.  It  records  the  evening  schools  and  social 
centers  and  the  work  of  the  park  commissions.  It  announces 
the  exhibits  of  the  Art  Institute  and  the  Scientific  and  Historical 
Societies.  It  gives  notice  of  all  the  private,  commercial,  and 
educational  enterprises  that  have  cultural  and  social  value  in 
the  city  and  the  suburbs.  There  is  thus  furnished  a  remarkable 
perspective  of  educational  opportunities  that  are  becoming  in- 
creasingly public. 

This  comprehensive  bulletin  of  educational  facilities  is  Chicago's 
substitute  for  the  commercial  advertisement  of  "What  is  Going 
on"  in  other  cities. 

Rochester  Social  Centers 

Neither  New  York  nor  Chicago  is  responsible  for  the  first 
full-fledged  social  center.  Rochester  proposed  the  social  center 
under  that  designation  at  a  joint  meeting  of  the  school  extension 
committee  and  the  board  of  education  July  5,  1907.  A  meeting 
had  been  held  on  February  15  of  the  same  year,  at  which  dele- 
gates from  organizations  representing  50,000  people  met  in 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  requested  the  mayor  and  council 
to  appropriate  $5000  for  social-center  development.^  The 
following  autumn  the  initial  steps  were  taken  in  Public  School- 
house  14,  where  a  neighborhood  gathering  was  held  on  Novem- 
ber I.  There  were  twelve  men  present,  which  was  perhaps 
auspicious  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  was  a  Friday  evening! 
The  potential  constituency  of  the  group  was  declared  to  be  the 
electorate  of  the  district.  Among  the  ofl&cers  chosen  was  a 
conservative  republican,  a  physician  (who  was  also  elder  in  a 
Presbyterian  Church),  a  Jewish  Socialist  tailor,  a  union  printer, 
and  a  bank  director.     At  the  next  meeting  "The  Duties  of  an 

'  It  was  decided  that  "the  Social  Center  should  provide  opportunity  for  physical 
activity,  by  means  of  gymnasium  equipment  and  direction,  baths,  etc.,  opportunities 
for  recreation,  in  addition  to  those  which  the  gymnasium  would  offer,  by  the  provi- 
sion of  various  innocent  table  games;  opportunities  for  intellectual  activity  by  the 
provision  of  a  library  and  reading  room  and  by  the  giving  of  a  lecture  or  entertain- 
ment at  least  once  each  week;  while  the  essentially  democratic,  intimately  social 
service  of  the  Centers  should  be  gained  through  the  opportunities  offered  for  the 
organization  of  self-governing  clubs  of  men,  of  women,  of  boys  and  girls." 


256  MIERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

.\lderman"  were  expounded  by  the  local  representative  to  the 
57  auditors.  Other  public  questions  were  considered,  the 
attendance  grew,  and  demands  came  from  other  parts  of  the 
city  for  the  use  of  schoolhouses.  During  that  season  seventy- 
two  meetings  were  held  to  discuss  a  range  of  topics  so  wide  that 
no  faction  had  yet  considered  any  limitation  on  their  scope. 

The  new  Declaration  of  Independence  proposed  education 
of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people. 

The  men  of  the  different  neighborhood  organizations 
gathered  at  the  original  center  for  a  banquet  at  the  close  of  the 
first  season.  Women  were  received  into  the  privileges  of  full 
membership  at  the  same  time.  During  the  year  they  had  been 
having  the  opportunity  of  meeting  among  themselves  in  the 
schoolhouses,  but  not  of  taking  part  in  the  deliberative  assembly. 
The  first  year  the  appropriation  was  not  large  enough  to  provide 
recreation  for  young  people.  The  success  of  the  men's  gather- 
ings led  to  an  appropriation  of  $10,000  for  social  centers  as  now 
understood.  Sixteen  schools  were  used  as  neighborhood  club 
houses,  open  not  only  evenings,  but  Sunday  afternoons,  at  the 
request  of  the  Ministers'  Association.  A  city-wide  League  of 
Ci\ac  Clubs  crowned  the  second  season's  work. 

Rochester  discovered  that  its  citizens  could  be  neighbors. 

The  third  season  more  than  $20,000  was  appropriated  for  the 
use  of  eighteen  school  buildings.  It  was  in  this  third  season 
that  the  social  center  began  to  be  defined  in  all  its  amplitude. 
The  Rochester  Dental  Association  cooperated  in  opening  the 
first  dental  clinic  in  a  schoolhouse.  The  Rochester  Art  Club 
cooperated  in  the  inauguration  of  an  art  gallery  in  a  schoolhouse. 
A  Health  Department  ofiicial  opened  a  local  health  office  in 
a  schoolhouse.  A  vocational  bureau  and  an  employment 
bureau  were  inaugurated.  While  the  schoolhouse  began  to  be  a 
place  of  meeting  for  clubs  of  all  kinds,  it  was  more  conspicuous  in 
its  use  by  organizations  putting  no  restriction  upon  membership 
or  attendance.  Young  and  old  gathered  for  serious  and  diverting 
entertainment  week  day  and  Sunday  in  the  common  school- 
house.  Discrimination  was  made  in  favor  of  those  who  did  not 
use  the  schoolhouses  in  the  daytime,  and  their  prompt  attend- 
ance showed  that  the  superstitious  limitation  of  the  school  to 
little  children  was  rapidly  dissipated. 

Three  evenings  a  week  were  given  to  men  and  boys  and  two 


SOCIAL  CENTERS  257 

to  women  and  girls.  One  evening  each  week  was  set  apart  for 
a  general  neighborhood  gathering  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages 
for  which  lectures  or  entertainments  were  provided. 

As  contrasted  with  subsequent  social  centers,  the  faciUties 
of  the  original  building  were  largely  improvised.  The  assembly 
hall  was  equipped  as  a  gymnasium.  Since  shower  baths  could 
not  be  installed  there,  they  were  put  in  on  the  ground  floor  in 
connection  with  the  cloak  room  of  the  kindergarten.  Tables 
and  table  games  were  procured  for  a  social  room.  A  stereopticon 
lantern  was  included.  A  library  of  five  hundred  volumes  was 
borrowed  from  Albany  and  popular  periodicals  were  added. 
Dishes  were  bought  that  the  clubs  might  serve  refreshments. 
The  success  of  the  social  center  under  these  tentative  circum- 
stances was  spectacular.  In  addition  to  the  director,  a  woman 
was  appointed  to  supervise  the  women's  and  girls'  activities 
and  a  man  to  have  charge  of  the  boys.  The  woman  at  this  first 
social  center  entered  so  fully  into  her  new  occupation  that  she 
made  five  hundred  calls  in  the  neighborhood.  In  addition  to 
these  officers,  there  was  a  librarian  who  also  guided  the  table 
games,  a  gymnasium  director  for  men  and  boys,  and  a  woman 
gymnasium  director  with  assistant  pianist.  A  doorkeeper  was 
also  necessary  and  a  janitor  on  account  of  the  large  patron- 
age that  immediately  responded  to  the  opening  of  the  social 
center. 

The  taxpayers  discovered  that  the  schools  were  theirs. 

As  the  people  became  acquainted  with  the  purpose  of  the 
center,  their  activities  ramified.  Civic  clubs  discussed  economic 
and  public  questions;  boys  and  girls  organized  debating  and 
athletic  clubs ;  and  foreigners  gathered  in  organizations  in  which 
they  could  retain  their  native  tongue.  At  the  close  of  a  concert 
given  by  an  Italian  club,  one  of  the  members  said,  "Here,  for 
the  first  time,  I  find  realized  the  dream  of  what  America  would 
be,  which  I  dreamed  while  in  Italy." 

One  of  the  results  of  the  intimate  acquaintance  and  free  dis- 
cussion of  the  Rochester  social  centers  was  to  make  the  radicals, 
who  promptly  seized  them  for  propaganda,  more  temperate  as 
they  came  to  understand  diverging  views.  Another  result  was 
to  make  the  conservatives  suspicious  of  any  movement  that 
gave  in  the  school  opportunities  for  free  speech.  Sinister  in- 
fluences struck  at  the  social  center  through  its  budget.     The 


258  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

endeavor  to  cripple  the  work  was  met  by  floods  of  petitions  and 
resolutions,  but  the  appropriation  was  cut.  Thereupon  every 
person  employed  in  social-center  service  volunteered  to  go  on 
with  the  work  without  compensation. 

The  right  hand  of  fellowship  cannot  build  the  temple  of  de- 
mocracy without  the  tools. 

A  Nation-wtoe  Movement 

The  extraordinary  success  of  the  Rochester  social  centers  in 
inaugurating  a  nation-wide  movement  was  due  primarily  to 
Edward  J.  Ward,  who  was  called  from  there  as  a  missionary  to 
the  state  of  Wisconsin,  through  its  popular  university.  Roch- 
ester's loss  was  Wisconsin's  gain.  That  pioneering  state 
passed  a  law  in  191 1  authorizing  school  authorities  to  grant 
the  use  of  schools  and  public  buildings  for  public  meetings  of 
all  kinds  on  petition  of  one-half  the  voters  of  the  district.  At 
Belleville  in  1914  the  Methodist  minister  was  elected  president 
of  the  community  center  upon  motion  of  the  Catholic  priest. 
Seventy-two  Wisconsin  cities  and  towns  used  their  schoolhouses 
as  polling  places  in  1914.  Twenty  thousand  community  as- 
semblies were  held  in  their  school  buildings.  Nearly  two  hun- 
dred men  and  women  were  employed  by  the  school  boards  to 
direct  social-center  work.  Other  states  have  followed,  cul- 
minating in  California.  The  California  law  establishes  a  social 
center  at  every  schoolhouse  in  the  state,  providing  free  care  of 
the  building  and  a  supervising  officer  out  of  the  local  school 
funds.  No  charge  is  made  for  the  use  of  the  property  unless  by 
an  organization  demanding  an  admission  fee. 

New  York,  Wisconsin,  California  —  an  ascending  scale  ! 

The  growth  of  the  social-center  movement  is  indicated  by 
Clarence  Arthur  Perry,  who  states  that  there  were  126  cities 
reporting  boards  of  education  that  provided  heat,  light  and 
janitor  service  in  1912-1913.  Seventy-one  cities  reported 
nearly  21,000  paid  workers.^  Over  500  schoolhouses  were  used 
for  polling  places,  nearly  500  for  political  meetings,  over  300 
for  exhibits  and  over  600  for  motion  pictures. 

*  The  list  of  cities  employing  paid  workers  in  1912-1913  is  given  in  Appendix  i. 


SOCIAL   CENTERS  259 

Recreation  Centers 

Next  in  interest  to  the  extended  patronage  of  the  schoolhouse 
is  the  number  of  activities  to  which  it  is  being  devoted.  The 
evolution  of  the  social  center  has  developed  thus  far  the  follow- 
ing functions :  a  lecture  center,  a  recreation  center,  a  parents' 
center,  a  local  art  gallery,  a  branch  public  library,^  a  motion- 
picture  theater,  a  political  forum,  a  polling  place,  a  civic  secre- 
tary's office,  and  an  employment  agency.  It  was  logical  and  easy 
for  the  lecture  center  to  grow  into  a  place  of  recreation,  providing 
for  debates,  dramatics,  music,  dancing,  civic,  literary  and  home- 
making  clubs,  and  athletics.  The  schoolhouse  is  usually  the 
headquarters  of  these  social  centers,  but  there  must  be  added  to 
school  buildings  other  public  places  suitable  for  larger  social 
uses. 

The  functions  of  the  social  center  were  elaborated  in  response 
to  the  neighborhood  needs  and  in  harmony  with  the  equipment 
of  the  schoolhouses.  In  addition  to  an  elaborate  program  of 
free  lectures  in  Brooklyn,  a  small  committee  of  citizens  secured 
the  Commercial  High  School  for  a  series  of  free  concerts  and 
lectures  on  Sunday  evenings.  High  class  musical  programs 
alternated  with  lectures  on  social  and  civic  subjects.  The 
attendance  at  the  concerts  averaged  1500  and  at  the  lectures 
about  half  as  many.  Collections  taken  up  at  the  performances 
amounted  to  two-thirds  of  the  total  expenses. 

Support  by  the  patrons,  if  not  imperative,  is  encouraging. 

The  social  center  in  Cincinnati  began  logically  as  an  outgrowth 
of  the  children's  curriculum  by  opening  gymnasiums  for  those 
of  both  sexes  who  are  over  school  age.  The  sexes  use  the 
gymnasiums  on  alternate  evenings.  The  school  swimming 
pools  are  open  to  the  public  in  the  evening  and  a  free  choral 
class  has  been  organized  under  the  supervisor  of  music.  Cin- 
cinnati also  conducts  free  lectures,  but  does  not  make  special 
provision  for  free  discussion  of  public  questions.  The  refusal 
of  the  library  and  school  boards  to  allow  the  auditoriums  in 
the  buildings  under  their  administration  to  be  used  for  public 
discussion  incited  the  movement  for  the  revision  of  the  consti- 
tution of  Ohio.  This  radical  document  emanated  from  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  which  Herbert  Bigelow  was  president. 

» See  pp.  244, 245. 


26o  AMERICAN   MUNICTPAL   PROGRESS 

He  and  Frank  Parker  Stockbridge  had  tried  to  organize  the 
Town  Meeting  Society  in  Cincinnati,  and  the  suppression  of  free 
speech  has  quite  properly  given  Ohio  one  of  the  best  constitu- 
tions in  the  country.  Thus  the  educational  authorities  of  Cin- 
cinnati innocently  promoted  a  great  democratic  movement,  as 
did  the  authorities  of  Rochester  when  Mr.  Ward's  energies 
were  released  for  the  benefit  of  Wisconsin. 

A  wise  engineer  is  grateful  for  the  safety  valve. 

The  growth  of  the  social  center  in  Boston  has  been  due  to  the 
same  kind  of  influences  that  have  given  rise  to  it  elsewhere. 
The  Women's  Municipal  League  estabUshed  a  neighborhood 
center  in  the  East  Boston  High  School.  The  enterprise  was 
wisely  inaugurated  by  a  couple  of  skilled  social  workers  taking 
up  residence  in  the  neighborhood.  This  meant  three  months 
spent  in  getting  acquainted  with  neighbors  before  opening  the 
school.  The  results  of  these  intensive  labors  were  legislation 
by  the  state  authorizing  the  larger  use  of  public  school  property 
and  the  organization  of  seven  social  centers  in  Boston  under  the 
direction  of  an  experienced  worker.  A  woman  and  a  man  are 
put  in  charge  of  each  one  of  these  centers  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  director.  The  centers  are  open  Wednesday, 
Friday  and  Saturday  evenings.  In  addition  to  recreation, 
courses  of  lectures  are  given.  The  centers  are  to  be  linked  to- 
gether by  debates  and  general  concerts.  The  organization  is 
to  be  as  far  as  possible  self-governing  through  a  local  council. 
Lectures  provided  in  1914-1915  were  delivered  not  only  in 
English,  but  in  Polish,  Lithuanian,  Italian,  and  Yiddish. 

There  is  no  confusion  of  tongues  where  all  speak  the  language 
of  neighborliness. 

Grand  Rapids  employs  a  supervisor  of  social  centers  who  not 
only  directs  the  six  centers  in  grade  schools,  but  has  charge 
of  the  boys'  athletics  and  playgrounds.  The  a/ctivities  include 
choruses,  gymnastics,  sewing  classes  for  mothers,  dramatics, 
minstrel  shows,  boxing  matches,  debating  societies,  illustrated 
lectures  and  motion  pictures.  The  social-center  year  lasts 
five  months.  Kansas  City  has  opened  centers  in  seventeen 
buildings,  and  Milwaukee  has  voted  by  referendum  over  $80,000 
for  one  year's  social-center  work  through  a  two-tenths  of  a  mill 
tax.  Eight  Milwaukee  social  centers  include  pool  and  billiard 
tables  in  their  equipment. 


Voting  in  a  Field  House,  Los  Angeles. 


Photograph  try  A.  L.  Cross. 

Pool  Room  in   Forest   Home   Avenue   Social   Center,   Milwaukee, 

Wisconsin. 


SOCIAL   CENTERS  261 

A  school  in  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  possesses  a  bowUng  alley. 

At  first  the  school  boards  reluctantly  permitted  the  use  of 
the  schoolhouses  upon  payment  of  all  expenses.  The  tendency 
now  is  to  open  the  buildings  free.  After  an  agitation  extending 
over  years  the  Board  of  Education  of  St.  Louis  has  ruled  to  per- 
mit the  use  of  the  school  buildings  for  civic,  recreational,  and 
educational  purposes  free,  charging  fees  only  when  they  are 
used  for  amusements  or  entertainments,  including  dancing. 
This  interpretation  means  that  the  school  yards,  shower  baths, 
and  playrooms  are  open  without  charge. 

Life  becomes  freer  as  the  interests  multiply  that  can  be  paid 
for  out  of  the  common  fund. 

Parents'  Centers 

Mothers'  clubs  are  being  organized  throughout  the  country 
and  in  many  instances  these  have  led  to  parents'  clubs.  Some 
of  these  organizations  merely  take  an  academic  interest  in  the 
children's  education.  Some  help  to  organize  social  centers, 
while  others  have  been  recognized  as  having  an  organic  rela- 
tion to  the  school  system.  In  Birmingham,  Alabama,  there  is 
a  school  improvement  association,  a  voluntary  organization 
of  parents  in  each  school  district,  whose  function  it  is  to  ad- 
minister the  social  centers.  The  schoolhouses  may  be  used  for 
entertainments,  lectures,  civic  league  meetings,  playground 
associations,  boys'  clubs,  debating  societies,  and  other  entertain- 
ments which  are  authorized  by  the  School  Improvement  As- 
sociation in  cooperation  with  the  principal.  These  associations 
have  promoted  school  decoration,  school  libraries,  and  kinder- 
gartens. They  provide  the  school  lunches,  furnish  pianos  and 
talking  machines,  and  provide  playground  equipment  and  super- 
vision. The  local  associations  are  federated  in  a  Central  Asso- 
ciation, meeting  twice  a  year  to  discuss  their  common  functions. 

The  Parent-Teachers'  Associations  of  Kansas  City  share  with 
the  Mother's  Congress  and  the  Department  of  Public  Welfare 
the  responsibiUty  for  the  social-center  meetings  in  the  school- 
houses.  These  associations  held  407  meetings  in  1913-1914, 
fifty-nine  of  the  schools  having  such  associations. 

It  must  cheer  the  children  to  have  this  triumvirate  —  mother, 
father,  teacher  —  back  in  school  again. 


262  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Art  Centers 

The  schoolhouse  is  becoming  an  art  center  for  the  community, 
as  well  as  for  the  children.  The  Chicago  Society  of  Artists, 
which  has  been  much  more  pubhc  spirited  than  most  local 
organizations,  circulates  a  traveling  loan  collection  of  original 
paintings  so  that  children  and  others  are  not  compelled  to  go  to 
the  Art  Institute,  at  least  to  see  the  products  of  local  talent. 
The  Washington  Irving  High  School,  New  York,  has  used  its 
broad  corridors  for  loan  art  exhibits.  It  is  estimated  that  as 
many  as  12,000  visitors  have  passed  through  these  improvised 
galleries  in  a  week.  New  York  has  also  experimented  in  pro- 
grams of  classic  music  by  gifted  performers  to  the  children 
and  parents  in  the  school  auditoriums.  Similar  encouragement 
has  been  given  to  the  classic  drama  by  the  cooperation  of  the 
Wage-earners'  Theater  League  and  the  Children's  Theater 
with  the  Department  of  Education.  The  Ben  Greet  Company 
has  given  performances  in  the  high  school  auditoriums,  the  ex- 
pense being  met  by  a  uniform  admission  fee  of  ten  cents.  Cham- 
ber concerts  are  given  in  Boston  in  the  auditoriums  of  the  schools. 
Music  is  taught  in  Rochester  social  centers  without  charge,  the 
pupil  meeting  his  obligations  by  assisting  in  the  public  concerts. 
The  adult  public  of  Rochester  is  organized  into  community 
choruses. 

Art  for  the  people  does  not  mean  merely  pictorial  art  or  peep 
shows. 

The  most  remarkable  school  art  center  and  perhaps  the  most 
democratic  art  movement  is  in  Richmond,  Indiana.  In  1897 
there  was  organized  in  this  small  city  of  25,000  inhabitants  an 
Art  Association.  Mrs.  Ella  Bond  Johnston,  assisted  by  a  few 
local  artists,  officials  and  citizens,  gathered  an  exhibit  to  supple- 
ment the  art  work  in  the  schools.  This  organization  has  con- 
tinued effectively  ever  since  then.  Voluntary  subscriptions  of 
fifty  cents  or  more  secured  a  large  membership  and  a  wide  in- 
terest. The  exhibition  was  first  held  in  one  of  the  ward  schools 
at  the  close  of  the  school  year.  This  building  was  transformed 
into  a  very  satisfactory  gallery.  In  addition  to  the  works  of 
local  artists,  there  was  gradually  included  a  collection  of  pictures 
from  the  best  American  painters.  The  exhibit  was  not  confined 
to  painting,  but  included  all  the  arts  —  oils,  water  colors,  textiles, 


SOCIAL   CENTERS  263 

ceramics,  leather  work,  bookbinding,  basketry,  and  cabinet 
work  —  any  worthy  craft.  To  these  were  added  the  work  of 
the  school  art  classes. 

In  this  way  a  personal  interest  was  aroused  among  the  popu- 
lation that  has  led  to  a  patronage  of  half  the  people  of  the  city 
at  the  annual  spring  exhibition. 

At  the  end  of  seven  years  the  exhibit  had  become  so  well 
established  that  the  City  Council  began  to  contribute  annually 
$100  from  the  public  funds.  For  fourteen  years  the  exhibits 
were  held  in  the  Garfield  School.  Prizes  were  offered  to  Rich- 
mond and  Indiana  artists,  the  awards  being  made  by  a  competent 
jury.  A  former  resident  has  provided  a  fund  of  $500  annually 
for  the  purchase  of  pictures  for  the  community. 

When  a  new  high  school  was  to  be  built,  Mrs.  Johnston  per- 
suaded the  authorities  to  put  a  gallery  on  the  third  floor.  Three 
suitable  rooms  were  constructed  which  have  been  handsomely 
and  conveniently  decorated  and  lighted.  Here  is  housed  a 
permanent  collection  and  the  periodical  exhibits.  In  191 2- 
1913  there  were  shown  in  this  museum,  in  addition  to  the  Six- 
teenth Annual  Exhibition  of  American  Paintings  and  the  cor- 
responding exhibition  by  Indiana  artists,  six  other  exhibits, 
including  the  work  of  the  schools.  The  gallery  was  also  used 
for  eighteen  meetings  of  women's  clubs,  twenty-one  receptions 
for  clubs  and  schools,  and  twelve  art  lectures,  as  well  as  numerous 
art  lessons.  Over  11,000  people  visited  the  gallery  to  view  the 
collections.  The  art  gallery  is  open  to  the  public  at  all  times 
when  the  high  school  building  is  open.  As  a  result  of  this  move- 
ment, the  ten  school  buildings  of  Richmond  are  enriched  by 
over  100  canvases  and  500  reproductions.  The  movement  has 
not  stopped  with  Richmond.' 

Eve's  daughters  seem  to  maintain  the  discriminating  prece- 
dent said  to  have  been  established  by  the  first  woman  of 
taste. 

Motion-picture  Theaters 

The  use  of  graphic  methods  in  the  schools  has  been  appre- 
ciated by  progressive  educators  for  some  time.     It  was  inevitable 

'  Mrs.  Johnston  now  selects  paintings  for  important  annual  exhibitions  in  Muncie, 
Lafayette,  Anderson,  Greensburg,  Bloomington,  and  Terre  Haute,  Indiana,  Charles- 
ton, Rockford,  and  Urbana,  Illinois. 


264  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

that  they  should  sooner  or  later  appreciate  the  advent  of  motion 
pictures  as  a  pedagogical  device.  While  the  films  have  until 
recently  had  a  commercial  moti\'e,  their  vividness  has  made 
them  unintentionally  educational.  As  the  stage  presents  the 
most  realistic  picture  of  life  to  the  average  person,  so  the  motion 
picture  is  more  striking  than  the  illustrative  material  of  the 
school.  Not  only  are  films  being  used  in  schools  and  for  educa- 
tional purposes  in  motion-picture  houses,  but  films  are  being  pre- 
pared with  an  educational  intent.  The  commercial  companies 
themselves  are  making  films  for  the  sake  of  encouraging  their  use 
in  schools. 

American  history,  literature,  biology,  botany  and  geology,  as 
well  as  industrial  and  remedial  processes  have  been  illustrated. 

There  are  two  chief  methods  by  which  motion  pictures  may 
serve  the  public  in  an  educational  way.  One  is  directly  through 
the  social  center  and  the  other  indirectly  in  cooperation  with 
motion-picture  houses.  The  most  extensive  use  of  motion 
pictures  has  doubtless  been  made  in  New  York  and  its  suburbs, 
where  hberal  educational  principles  find  commercial  faciUties 
easily  available.  More  than  one  dozen  schools  in  the  Boroughs 
of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx  and  a  number  in  Brooklyn  have 
been  in  the  vanguard  with  some  of  the  New  Jersey  suburbs.^ 
Motion  pictures  have  been  shown  in  the  East  Side  schools  for 
an  admission  charge  of  three  cents  in  competition  with  the  com- 
mercial enterprises.  The  subjects  are  not  all  educational,  but 
they  are  expurgated.  The  University  of  Wisconsin  has  been 
followed  by  the  University  of  Kansas  in  buying  and  renting 
films  which  are  sent  to  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  state  for  neigh- 
borhood-center use. 

A  motion-picture  show  in  a  schoolhouse  is  surely  as  legitimate 
as  a  church  supper. 

A  second  use  of  films  for  social  purposes  is  in  cooperation  with 
motion-picture  houses.  The  Drama  League  of  Minneapolis 
has  arranged  with  managers  for  appropriate  programs.  Films 
designed  especially  to  instruct  school  children  have  been  shown 
in  theaters  in  Omaha,  Louisville,  Detroit,  and  Portland,  Oregon, 
Frequently  teachers  direct  the  attention  of  their  pupils  to  films 
that  illustrate  current  subjects.     A  further  use  of  films  in  work 

» For  cities  using  motion-picture  films  in  schools  and  social  centers,  see  Appen- 
dix 2. 


SOCIAL  CENTERS  265 

kindred  to  that  of  the  social  center  is  found  in  playgrounds. 
In  New  York  the  Park  Department  cooperates  with  the  Parks 
and  Playground  Association.  Enormous  audiences  have  viewed 
motion  pictures  in  the  playgrounds  at  night.  St.  Louis  appro- 
priated $2000  in  June,  1914,  for  the  rental  of  films  to  be  shown 
in  the  parks  of  that  city.^ 

If  the  playground  is  incorporated  in  the  system  of  education, 
why  not  the  theater? 

Citizenship  Centers 

It  is  customary  in  New  England  to  have  "ward  rooms" 
in  addition  to  the  town  halls  in  cities  of  any  size.  These  rooms 
are  used  for  political  rallies.  It  is  not  therefore  surprising  that 
Worcester  should  have  used  rooms  in  the  basements  of  its  school- 
houses  for  such  purposes  for  a  generation  past.  "The  'ward 
rooms'  in  the  Worcester  schools  are  used  not  alone  for  elections 
but  are  rented  to  political  parties  for  caucuses  for  five  dollars 
and  to  political  leaders  for  raUies  for  two  dollars  and  a  half  a 
night."  Chicago  began  to  use  its  schoolhouses  for  political 
discussion  in  the  campaign  that  followed  the  extension  of  suffrage 
to  women.  The  old  custom  has  been  revived  of  having  candi- 
dates of  the  chief  parties  speak  on  the  same  platform.  This 
practice,  connected  with  the  participation  of  both  men  and 
women,  made  the  use  of  the  schoolhouse  in  the  campaign  sym- 
bolic of  the  new  civic  life  of  Chicago. 

Boston,  Rochester  and  Philadelphia  signalize  the  annual  ad- 
vent of  new  citizens  by  an  appropriate  celebration,  lending 
dignity  to  their  maturity.  In  Boston  Faneuil  Hall  is  used.  Los 
Angeles  accepts  a  certificate  from  the  high  school  for  a  special 
course  in  lieu  of  court  examinations.  November  25,  1914, 
a  class  of  twenty-one  was  inducted  into  American  citizenship. 
New  York  has  used  a  ritual  prepared  by  Percy  Mackaye  in  its 
new  citizenship  festival  in  the  City  College  Stadium. 

Much  more  extensive  is  the  use  of  schoolhouses  for  polling 
places. 2    It  is  remarkable  that  the  use  of  schoolhouses  as  polling 

'  For  other  cities  using  motion  pictures  in  parks  and  playgrounds,  see  Appen- 
dix 3. 

*  It  was  claimed  in  The  Survey,  April  11,  igi4,  that  szg  schoolhouses  were  already 
being  used  for  polling  places.     Seventy  of  these  were  in  Chicago. 


266  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

places  should  seem  strange  in  most  American  communities 
since  they  have  been  used  from  time  immemorial  in  Pittsburgh 
and  other  places.  Los  Angeles  and  Salt  Lake  City  adopted  the 
method  in  191 1.  Every  schoolhouse  in  the  latter  city  was  used. 
The  great  spiritual  significance  of  this  simple  device  was  appre- 
ciated and  emphasized  at  Sauk  City,  Wisconsin,  on  election  day, 
1914.  A  Social  Center  Pageant  was  given,  in  which  the  people 
represented  all  the  chief  sources  of  the  original  population  — 
Indian,  French,  Yankee  and  German.  The  ballot-box,  draped 
with  the  American  flag,  was  carried  through  the  streets  from  the 
Towm  Hall  to  the  public  school.  In  the  shrine  of  the  coming 
citizen  it  was  placed  between  the  pictures  of  Washington  and 
Lincoln. 

The  ballot-box  is  their  ark  of  the  covenant. 

Civic  Secretaries 

Sauk  City  is  also  in  the  lead,  with  its  neighbors,  Osseo  and 
Neillsville,  Wisconsin,  in  creating  the  office  of  civic  secretary. 
On  June  20,  19 14,  the  school  board  of  Osseo  voted  to  engage 
R.  M.  Blackmun  as  school  principal  and  civic  secretary  at  a 
salary  one-third  larger  than  they  had  been  accustomed  to  pay 
for  a  principal. 

Within  a  few  days  the  school  board  of  Sauk  City  voted 
to  continue  Superintendent  M.  T.  Buckley  with  these  added 
duties.  The  following  August  the  State  Industrial  Com- 
mission recognized  that  these  public  servants  were  the  authorized 
representatives  of  their  communities  to  make  use  of  the  free 
employment  service  and  they  were  appointed  deputies. 

The  public  schoolhouse  is  thus  made  the  local  employment 
agency,  in  addition  to  its  other  functions  as  a  social  center. 

Principal  Buckley  says:  "With  this  work  recognized  and  re- 
munerated as  public  service ;  with  its  administration  organized 
and  centered  in  the  State  Superintendent's  office  in  the  Capitol ; 
and  with  the  Bureau  of  Social  Center  Development  and  the 
other  Bureaus  of  the  Extension  Division  as  ready  sources  of 
suggestions,  material  for  discussion,  speakers  and  motion-picture 
films,  I  prophesy  that  the  people  of  Wisconsin  will  be  equipped 
to  get  three  times  the  value  they  have  been  getting  out  of  their 
investment  in  educational  equipment  —  and  incidentally  will 


SOCIAL   CENTERS  267 

have  in  their  hands  the  machinery  for  that  genuine  home  rule 
which  is  democracy."  The  superintendent's  office  at  Selma, 
Alabama,  has  been  used  as  an  employment  bureau  for  school 
graduates.  It  also  finds  jobs  for  schoolboys  after  school  hours. 
The  spectacled  pedagog  of  earlier  days  is  still  found  in 
musical  comedies. 

New  York's  Recreation  Centers 

No  city  has  gone  so  far  in  the  development  of  social  centers  as 
New  York.  It  is  at  last  able  to  act  under  a  bill  which  provides 
for  the  use  of  schoolhouses  and  grounds  for  assemblies,  educa- 
tional and  library  purposes,  for  holding  civic  and  recreational 
meetings  that  are  open  to  the  public,  and,  when  authorized  by 
the  vote  of  the  district,  for  holding  political  meetings  and 
elections.  There  were  in  1914  thirty-eight  recreation  centers 
in  the  five  boroughs  of  Greater  New  York.  Five  of  these,  in 
outlying  sections,  are  open  only  two  nights  in  the  week ;  the 
others  are  open  six  nights.  The  first  function  of  the  recreation 
center  is  athletics.  A  trained  gymnast  is  in  charge  and  all  are 
encouraged  to  participate,  so  that  instead  of  developing  a  few 
trained  acrobats,  all  may  make  physical  improvement.  A 
union  athletic  meet,  in  which  the  chief  centers  compete,  is  held 
at  the  end  of  the  year  in  one  of  the  great  armories.  Only  one  of 
the  centers  —  the  High  School  of  Commerce  —  offers  swim- 
ming facihties,  but  there  a  competent  teacher  gives  instruction. 

New  York  is  well  equipped  with  pubHc  bathhouses.  Swim- 
ming is  not  such  a  luxury  as  in  some  cities. 

A  second  feature  of  the  recreation  center  is  the  game  room  and 
library.  Checkers,  chess,  magazines,  newspapers,  and  fifty 
volumes  from  the  Public  Library  are  available.  A  third  feature 
is  the  club  life.  Sometimes  more  than  thirty  clubs  have  been 
organized  in  a  single  center.  A  director,  furnished  by  the  Board 
of  Education,  gives  training  in  parliamentary  procedure  and  the 
preparation  of  recitations  and  debates.  An  effort  is  made  to 
persuade  the  members  of  the  literary  clubs  to  take  training  in 
the  gymnasium.  The  clubs  are  self-governing.  In  some  of 
the  recreation  centers  study  rooms  have  been  established,  where 
the  children  of  the  day  schools  who  lack  proper  home  advantages 
may  have  adequate   facilities  with  the  assistance  of  teachers. 


268  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

In  one  center  only  one  of  the  two  hundred  children  who  attended 
the  study  room  was  not  promoted  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
children  receive  personal  attention  that  it  is  often  difficult  to 
give  in  the  overcrowded  school.  The  sexes  are  usually  segre- 
gated in  these  recreational  centers,  but  mixed  dancing  classes 
have  been  conducted.  Young  men  come  to  the  young  women's 
centers  with  membership  cards  indicating  their  connection  with 
clubs  at  their  own  center. 

Another  feature  of  the  recreational  center  is  the  teaching  of 
music.  Glee  clubs  and  choruses  have  been  organized.  A 
bequest  of  Mr.  Pulitzer  has  estabUshed  a  fund  for  giving  or- 
chestral music,  and  the  public  school  auditoriums  are  used  for 
these  concerts. 

The  best  known  social  center  in  New  York  is  perhaps  Public 
School  63  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  where  the  organiza- 
tions meet  all  the  expenses  from  their  club  dues  and  admission 
fees.  This  school  is  located  on  the  lower  East  Side.  The  work 
has  been  assisted  by  a  special  committee  of  the  People's  Insti- 
tute. The  architecture  of  the  school  provides  a  large  tiled 
court  which  makes  a  successful  dancing  floor.  The  Wednesday 
Neighborhood  Club,  an  organization  of  adults,  has  managed 
the  dancing  in  the  courtyard.  A  dancing  club  was  formed  to 
meet  once  a  week  with  dues  of  five  cents.  The  membership 
has  been  limited  to  550  to  accommodate  it  to  the  space  available. 
Through  the  dances  the  committee  was  able  to  pay  over  for  the 
benefit  of  the  center  $475  for  the  year. 

Why  dance  in  a  dirty  dance  hall,  when  one  can  dance  in  one's 
own  club  house? 

The  Beethoven  Musical  Society  has  made  use  of  this  social 
center,  and  under  its  volunteer  leadership  has  organized  a  second 
orchestra.  The  membership  is  made  up  of  workers  who  are 
busy  during  the  day,  some  of  them  so  limited  financially  that 
they  have  to  copy  their  music  from  the  libraries.  Concerts 
are  given,  for  which  an  admission  fee  of  ten  cents  is  charged, 
and  hundreds  are  turned  away  after  the  hall  has  reached  its 
capacity  of  a  thousand.  A  public  forum  is  conducted,  and  dur- 
ing the  Presidential  campaign  of  191 2  the  political  parties  held 
meetings  at  the  center.  To  this  center  both  sexes  are  admitted, 
and  one  of  the  results  has  been  the  formation  of  an  Educational 
Dramatic  League,  which  has  conducted  a  class  and  helped  to 


SOCIAL   CENTERS  269 

organize  ten  dramatic  clubs.  The  management  of  the  center  is 
in  the  hands  of  delegates  from  the  different  clubs  known  as  the 
Social  Center  Committee  of  Public  School  63. 

Self-government  gives  a  great  deal  of  dignity  to  the  social 
center. 

The  curtailment  of  the  budget  has  hindered  the  work  of  recrea- 
tion centers  but  stimulated  the  perfection  of  the  community 
center  in  New  York.  The  East  Side  Neighborhood  Association, 
meeting  in  Public  School  62  at  Hester  and  Essex  streets,  has 
met  this  by  a  self-governing  system  that  undertakes  to  supply 
the  center's  needs  through  voluntary  subscription  and  partici- 
pation. In  the  heart  of  the  most  thickly  populated  square 
mile  in  the  world  an  auditorium  is  frequently  taxed  to  its 
capacity  of  2000  by  those  who  attend  the  East  Side  Forum. 

In  old  Greenwich  Village  the  Greenwich  Association  has  been 
organized  at  Public  School  41.  This  is  composed  of  twenty-five 
members,  elected  by  those  who  register  to  vote.  Nineteen 
organizations  have  sprung  up  in  the  schoolhouse.  Thirty-five 
per  cent  of  receipts  from  all  entertainments  goes  to  the  com- 
mission. Members  of  the  subsidiary  organizations  pay  five 
cents  a  week.  The  Board  of  Education  supplies  a  director  and 
custodian,  but  the  center  is  entirely  self-governing. 

Other  Social  Centers 

A  schoolhouse  is  the  most  appropriate,  but  not  the  only,  meet- 
ing place  for  a  social  center.  The  Carnegie  Library  at  Home- 
stead, Pennsylvania,  is  equipped  for  a  large  number  of  social 
uses  besides  the  furnishing  of  books.  While  the  Hbrary  circu- 
lates nearly  one-quarter  of  a  million  volumes,  it  has  a  music 
hall  attended  by  34,000  people,  a  gymnasium  and  bowling  alley 
with  an  attendance  of  38,000,  a  natatorium  where  56,000  baths 
are  taken,  and  a  biUiard  room  where  50,000  games  are  played 
yearly.  In  the  libraries  of  Memphis,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia, 
Minnesota,  graphophone  concerts  are  given  in  connection 
with  lantern  slides  or  the  story  hour.  Virginia,  Minnesota, 
thus  finds  Victrola  concerts  gathering  crowds  on  Sunday  after- 
noons in  one  of  the  most  desirable  meeting  places  in  the  town. 
The  Public  Library  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  is  almost  as  much  a 
social  center  for  the  citizens  as  it  is  a  distributing  center  for  books. 


270  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Public  libraries  are  extending  their  activities  so  that  in  some 
cities  they  may  be  said  to  be  used  now  to  the  maximum  of 
available  time  and  space. ^ 

Many  small  cities  are  provided  with  rest  rooms  for  the  women 
that  an  agricultural  center  draws  on  market  days.  These  are 
usually  equipped  and  maintained  by  public  spirited  women  of 
some  club  more  alert  to  such  necessities  than  the  men  or  public 
officials.  In  Sahsbury,  North  Carohna,  this  idea  was  the  nucleus 
of  an  enterprise  that  has  grown  into  a  great  Community  Build- 
ing. When  the  county  built  a  handsome  new  court  house  the 
disposition  of  its  neglected  old  colonial  predecessor  became  a 
question.  A  small  club  of  women,  led  by  Mrs.  J.  P.  Moore,  set 
to  work  to  rehabihtate  this  rehc  of  a  finer  architectural  period. 
The  county  was  persuaded  to  spend  Sio,ooo  on  renovation. 
Provision  was  made  for  a  beautiful  auditorium,  offices  for  the 
Civic  Club,  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution  and  of  the 
Confederacy,  the  county  farm  agent,  the  Industrial  Club  and 
the  Merchants'  Association.  A  creche  and  rest  rooms  are  main- 
tained ;  the  historical  society  and  the  public  library  are  housed ; 
Salisbury  and  Rowan  County  now  enjoy  one  of  the  finest 
social  centers  in  America. 

There  are  other  public  places  that  may  serve  as  social  centers. 
Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  field  houses  of 
Chicago.  Their  services  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
"PubHc  Recreation."  Mr.  Ward  points  out  that  $20,000,000 
have  thus  been  expended  to  provide  social  centers,  duplicating 
in  many  cases  the  equipment  of  the  schools  and  diverting  patron- 
age from  the  schoolhouse. 

The  catholicity  and  neighborliness  of  the  social  center  are 
indispensable  for  the  organization  and  expression  of  democracy. 
The  schoolhouse  is  universal  and  hence  the  logical  headquarters 
of  the  social  center  —  the  neighborhood  home. 

» Portland,  Oregon,  Public  Library,  p.  247. 


CHAPTER  XV 

PARKS   AND    BOULEVARDS 

The  original  recreation  ground  of  the  American  city  was  the 
cemetery,  to  which  friends  were  joyously  taken  as  the  only 
open  and  beautiful  space  in  the  community.  New  England 
towns  were  ordinarily  provided  with  a  common,  —  in  some  cases, 
like  the  Boston  Common,  large  enough  for  recreation  and  even 
rural  beauty.  Southern  and  western  country  towns  had  a 
court  house  square.  Until  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
natural  park  was  usually  an  afterthought  in  the  life  of  a  city. 
Elm  Park,  Worcester ;  Bushnell  Park,  Hartford  ;  Central  Park, 
New  York,  were  planned  in  1855.  The  park  commissioners  of 
New  York  laid  out  Central  Park  in  1857  against  the  protests  of 
the  citizens.  These  commissioners  of  large  vision  were  combated 
by  people  who  could  not  comprehend  why  a  park  should  be 
located  among  the  rocks  and  the  morass  beyond  the  boundary 
of  human  habitation.  There  is  no  better  named  park  in  the 
world  than  Central  Park,  and  with  the  later  additions  its  eight 
hundred  acres  did  not  cost  much  more  to  acquire  than  New 
York's  first  three  playgrounds.  The  costly  lack  of  vision  of 
New  Yorkers  and  most  other  Americans  is  in  no  way  more 
vividly  exhibited  than  in  the  fact  that  Central  Park's  840  acres 
cost  $6,664,500,  while  Mulberry  Bend,  Corlear's  Hook,  and 
Seward  Parks  —  ten  acres  in  extent  —  cost  $5,237,000.  Phila- 
delphia followed  New  York  with  Fairmount  Park  and  Baltimore 
with  Druid  Hill  Park,  both  on  the  confines  of  their  respective 
cities,  but  very  few  other  cities  made  important  park  provisions 
until  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.^ 

» An  inquiry  made  in  i86g  revealed  the  fact  that  New  York  boasted  of  943  acres 
of  park  space,  Baltimore  585,  Brooklyn  550,  St.  Louis  386,  and  Chicago  126. 
In  forty  years  Manhattan's  park  space  had  grown  to  1440  acres,  New  York's  chief 
extensions  naturally  being  in  the  outlying  boroughs.  Baltimore  had  2401  acres, 
Brooklyn  1141,  St.  Louis  2286,  and  Chicago  4230.  New  York  is  still  inade- 
quately provided  with  parks,  but  Greater  New  York  has  8000  acres. 

271 


272 


AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 


The  virtues  as  well  as  the  sins  of  the  fathers  are  visited  upon 
the  children. 

Chicago's  Pioneering 

Chicago  inaugurated  its  park  system  on  the  South  Side  in 
1869,  a  referendum  with  a  majority  of  two  to  one  authorizing 
the  issue  of  two  milhon  dollars  in  bonds.  In  19 14  Chicago 
voted  $3,800,000  to  build  the  final  hnk  in  its  boulevard  system, 
where  Michigan  Avenue  crosses  the  Chicago  River.  This 
connection  involves  the  widening  of  streets  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  including  the  destruction  of  valuable  business  property 
on  the  South  Side  and  the  building  of  a  two-level  bridge  to  sepa- 
rate the  pleasure  traffic  from  heavy  teaming.  The  total  cost  is 
to  be  more  than  twice  the  bond  issue,  the  remainder  being  raised 
by  special  assessment. 

Chicago  is  beginning  to  spend  in  191 5  for  a  fraction  of  a 
boulevard  nearly  four  times  as  much  as  it  appropriated  for  its 
original  park  system. 

The  history  of  Chicago  is  typical  of  American  cities  and  may 
serve  as  a  guide  and  warning  to  communities  that  have  not  yet 
made  park  provision.  Chicago  is  divided  like  Gaul.  The  park 
system  of  the  South  Side  has  been  developed  with  wisdom,  except 
for  the  omission  of  park  space  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  river. 
It  now  includes  two  large  and  beautiful  parks,  in  which  unusually 
effective  work  has  been  done  on  the  prairie  foundation,  and 
several  smaller  parks  which  are  being  given  the  character  of 
playgrounds.  Jackson  Park  is  widely  known  as  the  site  of  the 
World's  Fair,  and  has  an  interest  chiefly  because  of  the  great 
extent  of  the  lake  shore  and  the  lagoons  which  penetrate  it  from 
the  lake,  giving  it  at  one  point  a  water  stretch  of  a  mile.  A 
beautiful  harbor  shelters  boats  from  the  treacherous  lake.  The 
dominant  feature  of  Washington  Park  is  a  great  meadow. 

An  instructive  principle  applied  in  the  Chicago  park  system, 
for  cities  whose  topography  is  equally  unfavorable,  is  the  di- 
versity which  has  been  introduced  in  the  several  parks.  The 
three  parks  on  the  West  Side  are  characterized  by  quite  different 
features.  The  southernmost,  Douglas  Park,  contains  summer 
swimming  provisions,  and  an  open  air  gymnasium  and  play- 
ground. Garfield  Park  possesses  a  golf  course;  while  Hum- 
boldt Park,  in  the  German  quarter  of  the  northwestern  part  of 


PARKS   AND    BOULEVARDS  273 

the  city,  is  suggestive  in  many  of  its  later  developments  of  the 
Fatherland.  The  architecture  of  the  park  offices  and  stables 
is  characteristically  German ;  the  refectory  is  as  elaborate  as 
would  be  necessary  to  appeal  to  these  lovers  of  outdoor  enter- 
tainment. There  are  several  notable  statues  to  distinguished 
Germans,  and  great  attention  is  given  to  the  cultivation  of 
flowers.  Lincoln  Park  on  the  North  Side  contains  not  only 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  and  Chicago's  modest  zoo- 
logical garden,  but  also  the  chief  sculptural  decoration  of  the 
city  —  St.  Gaudens's  "Lincoln"  —  at  the  entrance  of  the  park. 

The  Chicago  parks  were  the  first  to  be  freed  from  "Keep 
off  the  Grass"  signs. 

There  is  a  different  park  commission  for  each  side  of  the  city, 
which  in  a  measure  prevents  the  proper  extension  of  the  parks 
to  meet  the  growing  necessities  of  Chicago,  chiefly  because  of 
the  unfortunately  conspicuous  part  which  poUtics  has  played 
in  the  park  boards.  To  correct  this  Chicago  has  been  given  a 
Special  Park  Commission,  with  not  very  clearly  defined  func- 
tions, whose  activities  have  been  directed  to  the  establishment 
of  small  parks  and  playgrounds  and  a  comprehensive  investiga- 
tion of  Chicago's  needs.  There  are  many  beautiful  natural 
tracts  about  the  western  metropolis  which  have  been  recom- 
mended for  purchase  by  this  commission,  including  the  Skokie 
marshes  on  the  north,  the  Desplaines  River  region  on  the  west 
and  the  land  bordering  Calumet  River  and  Lake  on  the  south. 
These  large  areas  are  located  in  districts  more  populous  than 
those  which  surrounded  the  present  park  system  when  it  was 
originally  planned,  although  some  portions  of  them  are  fifteen 
or  twenty  miles  from  the  city  hall. 

At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  Chicago  awakened  to 
the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  its  park  system  was  all  on  the 
periphery  of  the  city.^  This  awakening  led  to  Chicago's  famous 
playground  system.     At  the  same  time  the  Special  Park  Com- 

1  Seven  hundred  thousand  people  Hved  more  than  a  mile  from  any  large  park. 
The  most  serious  aspect  of  this  was  that  those  wards  which  were  so  deficient  in  park 
space  were  also  those  in  which  the  houses  were  most  crowded.  The  way  in  which 
one  part  of  the  city  was  favored  at  the  expense  of  another  may  be  best  indicated 
by  observing  that  the  eleven  wards  which  contained  the  bulk  of  the  park  and  boule- 
vard system  included  1814  acres  of  park  space,  the  population  being  about  42S,cxx3; 
this  means  234  people  to  each  acre  of  park.  The  remaining  twenty-three  wards 
of  the  city,  with  a  population  of  over  1,000,000,  contained  228  acres,  or  4720  people 
to  each  acre  of  park  space. 


2  74  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

mission  began  an  agitation  for  rural  parks  that  is  now  being 
consummated.  The  referendums  of  1914  and  191 5  have  pro- 
vided funds  to  build  the  most  important  connections  in  the  city 
and  to  annex  some  of  the  most  beautiful  areas  outside. 

Chicago  will  shortly  outstrip  the  Metropolitan  Park  System 
of  Boston  in  area  and,  unless  New  York  shows  some  unexpected 
initiative,  will  have  three  times  the  park  area  of  the  metropolis. 

What  makes  Chicago's  experience  typical  is  the  succession 
of  steps  taken  to  secure  a  park  system.  Ambitious  plans  were 
made  before  the  great  fire.  They  were  taken  up  with  courage 
after  the  fire,  but  no  one  then  understood  the  meaning  of  a  com- 
prehensive park  system.  The  commissioners  were  wise  enough 
to  buy  outlying  areas  when  these  could  be  secured  cheaply 
and  to  plan  connections  by  a  boulevard  system,  but  they  omitted 
squares  and  playgrounds,  where  population  was  likely  to  be 
congested.  Having  allowed  the  growth  of  population  to  get 
beyond  the  hope  of  adequate  park  provision,  Chicago  met  this 
deficiency  by  the  most  ambitious  playground  system  in  the 
world.  Then  after  further  years  of  agitation  to  secure  the  most 
beautiful  bits  of  nature  fronting  the  new  metropolitan  city, 
Chicago  has  moved  to  so  secure  them.  It  has  also  given  to  its 
citizens  anywhere  the  right  to  establish  a  park  district  upon 
vote  of  the  neighborhood,  following  a  petition  by  one  himdred 
legal  voters.  In  less  than  ten  years  Chicago  has  in  this  way 
added  eleven  park  districts,  comprising  143  acres,  equipped 
with  playgrounds,  and  in  five  instances  field  houses,  at  a  cost 
of  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  million. 

Chicago's  park  system  represents  an  expenditure  of  over 
$30,000,000. 

Its  most  valuable  possessions  were  the  least  expensive.  Jack- 
son Park  on  the  South  Side,  where  the  World's  Fair  was  held, 
and  its  companion,  Washington  Park,  Unked  with  it  by  the  Mid- 
way Plaisance,  cost  less  than  New  York's  first  three  playgrounds 
—  $5,000,000.  The  whole  of  Chicago's  South  Park  system, 
including  its  eighteen  playgrounds  —  the  best  equipment  of  its 
kind  in  the  world  —  cost  less  than  the  West  Park  system  ($15,- 
800,000),  its  nearest  rival  in  the  playground  equipment.  The 
minor  North  Side  system  represents  an  original  cost  of  less  than 
a  million  dollars,  although  it  includes  Lincoln  Park,  the  most 
valuable  park  in  the  city  until  Grant  Park  was  redeemed  from 


PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS  275 

Lake  Michigan  in  front  of  the  business  center.  In  1842  Chicago 
purchased  from  the  state  for  $Sooo  the  original  land  for  Lincoln 
Park,  to  be  used  as  a  cemetery.  In  1864  the  northern  sixty 
acres  were  first  used  as  a  park  and  called  Cemetery  Park.  The 
park  has  been  enlarged,  and  in  19 13  over  $600,000  was  spent  in 
maintenance  alone. 

The  support  of  Chicago's  park  system  costs  considerably  over 
$2,000,000  a  year  at  present.  This  includes  $100,000  spent  by 
the  Special  Park  Commission  for  conducting  nineteen  minor 
playgrounds  and  caring  for  fifty-six  other  pieces  of  ground. 
Chicago  has  already  spent  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  in  securing 
Grant  Park,  a  tract  about  the  size  of  Boston  Common,  on  the 
lake  front  bordering  the  business  center.  This  is  the  beginning 
of  Chicago's  latest  development  that  promises  to  give  it  the  fmest 
water  front  in  the  world.  The  inconsequential  expense  is  due 
to  the  redemption  of  land  by  filling  in  the  lake  largely  with  the 
material  drawn  from  Chicago's  freight  tunnels. 

A  railroad  occupied  Chicago's  lake  front,  so  the  city  moved 
the  lake  front. 

Small  Parks  or  Squares 

The  rich  experience  of  twenty  years  demands  that  a  park 
system  include  (i)  small  parks  or  squares,  (2)  playgrounds,' 
(3)  parkways  and  boulevards,  (4)  outer  parks,  and  (5)  rural 
parks. 

The  small  parks,  often  of  historical  origin,  bear  the  most  in- 
timate relation  to  the  active  city  life.  The  curious  geometrical 
plan  of  William  Penn,  for  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  included 
five  small  squares,  determining  the  outline  of  the  city,  as  he 
conceived  it.  All  of  them  remain,  except  the  central  open  square 
appropriated  by  the  city  buildings.  Boston  has  set  an  illustrious 
example  to  its  other  New  England  neighbors  by  preserving  its 
famous  Common  of  forty  acres,  reserved  since  1634,  the  finest 
open  space  bordering  on  a  business  district  in  America.  Minor 
New  England  cities  have  their  commons,  but  none  to  rival 
Boston's.  The  Green  at  New  Haven  is  still  a  spot  of  comfort 
and  peace  between  the  business  district  and  the  college  and 
residence  sections.     Southern  cities  frequently  have  a  plaza 

>  See  Chapter  XVL 


276  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

corresponding  on  a  smaller  scale  to  the  common,  but  they  have 
often  been  as  faithless  to  Spanish  architectural  tradition  as 
New  England  has  been  to  her  heritage. 

Congested  Manhattan  has  the  most  significant  series  of 
historical  small  parks  of  any  city  in  the  United  States. 

Beginning  with  the  Battery,  which  looks  out  upon  New  York 
Bay,  at  the  point  of  division  of  the  rivers,  we  find  the  Aquarium 
(taking  the  place  of  Castle  Garden)  and  the  great  sea  wall  which 
forms  the  terminus  of  New  York.  Proceeding  from  the  Battery 
to  Broadway,  we  have  scarcely  left  the  one  open  space  until  we 
come  to  another.  Bowling  Green,  sacred  to  the  memory  of  the 
sportsmanlike  Dutch  founders  of  New  Amsterdam,  the  buildings 
on  the  left  side  of  the  square  marking  the  site  of  Fort  Amsterdam. 
The  raiUng  around  the  circle  dates  from  colonial  days,  when  it 
used  to  inclose  a  statue  of  George  III,  torn  down  on  the  4th  of 
July,  1776,  and  melted  into  bullets.  A  little  way  beyond,  the 
churchyard  of  Trinity  gives  the  effect  of  an  open  space,  and 
not  much  farther  up  Broadway  we  find  City  Hall  Park.  Before 
reaching  Union  Square  at  Fourteenth  and  Broadway,  there  is 
passed,  a  little  to  the  left,  at  the  beginning  of  Fifth  Avenue, 
Washington  Square,  which  with  the  Washington  arch  makes  a 
dignified  entrance  to  the  most  luxurious  thoroughfare  of  the 
world.  Beyond  Union  Square  but  a  short  distance  is  Madison 
Square,  at  the  junction  of  Twenty-third  Street,  Fifth  Avenue, 
and  Broadway,  and  other  little  historic  squares  —  Stuyvesant 
Square  and  Gramercy  Park  —  lie  to  the  east,  away  from  the 
main  thoroughfares.  Before  reaching  Central  Park,  there  is  still 
Bryant  Park,  at  Sixth  Avenue  and  Forty-second  Street,  adjoin- 
ing the  site  of  the  new  public  library. 

The  restless  rush  of  New  York's  superficial  currents  swirl 
into  alluring  spots  of  shade  where  the  still  waters  may  run 
deeper. 

Washington  has  over  three  hundred  small  open  spaces  gener- 
ously scattered  over  the  capital  city.  Savannah  has  twenty- 
three  squares  in  the  heart  of  the  city  giving  it  a  languid  beauty 
worthy  of  imitation  by  more  strenuous  cities.  Mount  Vernon 
Place,  Baltimore,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  central  open 
spaces  in  America.  It  is  the  expansion  of  a  hilly  street  leading 
up  to  Baltimore's  most  exclusive  residential  section.  This  is 
approached  by  easy  terraces,   well  planned,   and   includes   a 


PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS  277 

particularly  ornamental  fountain  and  the  impressive  Washing- 
ton Monument. 

The  Capitol  grounds  of  Hartford,  Richmond,  Nashville,  Madi- 
son and  Sacramento  are  successfully  treated  central  spaces 
serving  those  cities  well. 

Parkways  and  Boulevards 

Boulevards  have  a  different  significance  for  cities  with  ex- 
ceptional topography  and  for  cities  where  the  boulevard  must 
be  straight  and  level.  The  boulevards  of  Chicago  get  all  their 
beauty  from  landscape  architecture,  except  where  they  approach 
the  lake.  The  Lake  Shore  Drive  is  a  very  beautiful  avenue, 
the  beginning  of  a  boulevard  that  is  planned  to  continue  to 
Milwaukee,  a  distance  of  eighty-five  miles.  The  existing  drive- 
way along  the  lake  shore  in  Milwaukee  is  much  more  beautiful 
than  that  of  Chicago  because  it  is  on  a  bluff  above  the  lake. 
The  boulevards  of  Buffalo,  Indianapohs  and  Louisville  suffer 
from  the  same  limitation  until  they  reach  the  countryside,  but 
this  only  enhances  the  importance  of  their  simple  beauty  in 
the  city. 

A  boulevard  is  a  park-like  street. 

The  city  of  Savannah  is  unique  in  preserving  a  certain  inner 
portion  of  the  most  dehghtful  residence  district  free  from  the 
intrusion  of  the  steam  railways,  and  maintaining  thus,  in  addi- 
tion to  one  very  important  thoroughfare,  others  which  have 
the  nature  of  boulevards.  Duluth's  Boulevard  Drive  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  roads  in  the  country,  following  an  old  beach 
line  of  Lake  Superior,  at  a  height  of  four  or  five  hundred  feet 
above  the  present  level  of  the  lake.  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
takes  pride  in  the  Battery,  an  esplanade  stretching  for  five 
hundred  yards  along  the  water  front.  Several  southern  cities 
have  dehghtful  shell  roads  along  the  seashore.  Mobile  revelhng 
in  one  eight  miles  long.  Portland,  Maine,  has  two  promenades, 
giving  views  of  its  beautiful  water  approaches. 

A  boulevard  often  reveals  to  comatose  citizens  the  natural 
beauty  of  their  community. 

New  York  City  has  no  avenue  set  aside  for  pleasure  traffic  in 
the  heart  of  the  city.  It  has,  however,  made  notable  improve- 
ments along  the  Hudson  and  Harlem   rivers,  with  which   the 


278  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

treatment  of  the  East  River  makes  a  painful  contrast.  Begin- 
ning at  Seventy-second  Street,  the  steep  bank  of  the  Hudson 
River  has  been  made  into  a  beautiful  park  for  several  miles 
bordered  by  a  parkway,  which  gives  its  patrons  a  wonderful 
view  of  the  Pahsades.  The  driveway  has  recently  been  extended 
beyond  the  Hudson  Memorial  Bridge  at  Spuyten  Duyvil.  The 
Harlem  River  Speedway  was  constructed  originally  to  meet  the 
needs  of  owners  of  fast  horses.  It  borders  the  south  bank  of 
the  Harlem  River  with  a  background  of  precipitous  rock.  The 
road  is  supported  by  a  bulkhead  that  gives  it  a  very  picturesque 
elevation  above  the  stream.  The  timber  bulkhead  is  being 
supplanted  by  one  of  reenforced  concrete.  The  original  cost 
and  the  difficulty  of  maintenance  represent  an  expense  that  can 
only  be  justified  by  the  exceptional  beauty  of  this  driveway. 

New  York  has  boulevarded  a  number  of  its  streets  in  Harlem 
and  has  transformed  Delancey  Street  on  the  East  Side  since  it 
became  an  approach  to  one  of  the  new  bridges.  There  is  a 
central  park  area  planted  with  hedges  of  trees,  between  which 
in  some  places  the  public  school  children  have  been  allowed  to 
cultivate  their  school  gardens.  The  other  boroughs  have  a 
freer  chance  to  develop  driveways  than  Manhattan.  The 
Eastern  Parkway  affords  to  Brooklyn  outlets  to  the  ocean  and 
to  rural  Long  Island.  The  Bronx  is  given  easy  access  to  the 
charming  country  north  of  New  York  by  the  Bronx  River  Park- 
way, fifteen  miles  long. 

With  subways  and  tunnels  below  and  jitneys  and  jitfords 
above,  Manhattan  will  soon  have  to  designate  some  of  its 
scant  longitudinal  streets  as  boulevards. 

St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  have  united  to  develop  a  boule- 
vard system  that  will  take  in  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  lakes 
in  and  about  the  Twin  Cities  as  far  as  Lake  Minnetonka.  The 
main  water  frontage  of  the  Mississippi  lying  between  the  two 
cities  has  already  been  provided  with  a  parkway  on  each  side 
and  the  Minneapolis  chain  of  lakes  has  been  connected  with  a 
boulevard  system. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  boulevards  in  the  country  are  to 
be  found  in  and  about  Boston,  beginning  with  Commonwealth 
Avenue,  which  starts  at  the  Public  Gardens  and  runs  through 
the  Back  Bay  district.  It  is  a  spacious  street  240  feet  wide 
with  two  driveways  and  a  broad  middle  strip  where  paths  lined 


PARKS   AND   BOULEVARDS  279 

by  benches  wind  under  heavy  shade  trees.  The  treatment 
through  the  solidly  built  residence  quarter  is  necessarily  formal 
and  geometrical,  but  as  it  aj^proaches  the  suburban  districts 
it  follows  the  contour  of  the  hills  and  becomes  more  and  more 
natural.  The  driveways  which  radiate  in  all  directions  now 
from  Boston,  following  the  metropolitan  reservations,  furnish 
doubtless  the  most  extensive  boulevard  system  in  the  world. 
Provision  is  often  made  about  Boston  —  a  plan  followed  rather 
imperfectly  in  Minneapolis  and  New  Orleans  —  for  the  laying 
of  railway  tracks  in  a  turfed  space  in  the  middle  of  the  boule- 
vard, with  a  drive  on  either  side,  thus  giving  a  chance  to  all 
kinds  of  tourists  to  see  the  beautiful  country  through  which 
the  boulevard  runs. 

Metropolitan  Boston  has  over  fifty  miles  of  parkways,  much  of 
it  including  so  much  bordering  land  that  the  parkway  spaces 
total  over  eight  hundred  acres. 

Driveways 

The  park  system  of  Portland,  Oregon,  includes  driveways 
that  give  unique  views.  There  are  five  isolated  snow  peaks 
within  view  of  Portland  and  two  beautiful  river  valleys  —  the 
expansive  Columbia  and  the  picturesque  Willamette.  The 
latest  of  the  driveways  is  Terwilliger  Boulevard,  winding  along 
the  sides  of  hills  so  that  a  new  view  of  the  Willamette  Valley 
and  the  mountain  background  is  visible  at  every  turn.  A 
beautiful  lighting  system  of  concrete  standards  and  single  in- 
candescent globes  Hnes  this  driveway  for  five  or  six  miles. 

Portland  is  the  beneficiary  of  a  marvelous  county  road  leading 
to  the  bluffs  of  the  Columbia  forty  miles  away. 

Seattle's  park  system  (more  than  half  completed)  includes  a 
plan  for  a  fifty-mile  chain  of  drives  along  the  shores  of  the  lakes 
and  on  the  high  ridges  overlooking  the  Sound  and  with  outlooks 
on  the  mountains.  Seattle  is  rarely  fortunate  in  mountain 
views.  Mt.  Rainier's  isolated  snow-clad  peak  is  visible  to  the 
east  and  the  Olympic  range  of  snow  mountains  to  the  west. 
Colorado  Springs  has  beautiful  driveways  leading  out  to  its 
remarkable  rural  parks,  Palmer  Park  and  the  Garden  of  the 
Gods.  Madison,  Wisconsin,  has  chosen  to  lay  its  hands  on 
the  country  not  by  rural  parks  but  by  driveways  radiating  in  all 
directions  about  its  many  lakes. 


28o  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Cities  are  engaged  in  lively  contests  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of 
national  highways  like  the  Dixie  Highway,  the  Lincoln  High- 
way and  the  Santa  Fe  Trail. 

Denver's  boulevards  not  only  lead  to  city  parks,  from  which 
views  may  be  obtained  of  its  extraordinary  mountain  scenery, 
but  also  to  parks  in  the  mountains.  Mr.  John  Brisben  Walker 
advocated  the  idea  of  mountain  roads  in  1910.  The  Chamber 
of  Commerce  promoted  the  idea,  power  was  secured  from  the 
state  legislature  to  acquire  land  outside  the  city,  and  Frederick 
Law  Olmsted  was  invited  to  plan  the  roads.  Land  has  been 
bought  on  top  of  Lookout  and  Genesee  mountains.  A  road 
has  been  built  to  Lookout  Mountain,  twelve  miles  from  the  city 
limits ;  another  to  the  summit  of  Genesee  Mountain,  four  miles 
beyond,  as  well  as  one  winding  around  the  mountain  to  the 
valley.  The  roads  connect  also  the  towns  of  Golden  and  Morri- 
son, and  give  visitors  a  long  mountain  circuit,  in  addition  to 
the  use  of  picnic  places  provided  by  the  city  on  the  mountains. 

It  is  not  hard  in  some  of  the  mountain  cities  to  hitch  one's 
wagon  to  a  star. 

Outer  Parks 

The  great  parks,  which  preserve  the  natural  features,  usually 
by  virtue  of  being  remote  from  the  congested  district,  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  for  rest  and  recreation,  though  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  conceal  the  city's  need  for  smaller  parks. 
The  most  famous  of  the  great  parks  is  probably  Fairmount 
Park  in  Philadelphia.  For  many  years  this  park  was  the  largest 
in  the  country  and  it  still  maintains  its  reputation  in  many  parts 
for  natural  beauty,  while  it  continues  to  grow  and  now  contains 
over  three  thousand  acres.  Although  it  is  located  in  the  north- 
western corner  of  Philadelphia,  the  modern  trolley  systems 
give  it  a  very  large  patronage  from  the  population  of  that  city. 
To  accommodate  them  it  has  allowed  a  trolley  line  to  invade  its 
groves  and  ravines. 

This  system  of  park  transportation  presents  a  critical  problem. 
Fairmount  Park  is  so  extensive  in  area  that  it  would  require 
much  leisure  to  do  justice  to  its  beauties  or  enjoy  its  possible 
benefits.  There  are  thousands  of  people  who  make  but  one  or 
two  trips  to  the  park  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Ought  they  not 
to  be  allowed  to  see  all  that  is  possible  on  those  brief  visits? 


PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS  281 

Yet  this  cannot  be  done  without  disfiguring  the  natural  features. 
The  great  bridge  across  the  Schuylkill,  the  cuts  and  fills  through- 
out the  park,  unmistakably  detract  from  the  beauty  of  the  land- 
scape. 

If,  as  Superintendent  Foster  of  the  South  Parks,  Chicago, 
says,  "Park  roads  are  regrettable  necessities,"  what  shall  be 
said  of  the  inevitably  ugly  railway  tracks? 

The  question  can  best  be  decided  apparently  by  inquiring  as 
to  the  other  facilities  for  recreation  for  the  people.  If  the  beauties 
of  Wissahickon  Creek,  which  runs  for  eleven  miles  through  the 
northern  part  of  Fairmount  Park,  can  be  preserved  and  extended 
so  that  the  multitudes  may  still  enjoy  nature  unadorned,  perhaps 
the  lower  end  of  Fairmount  Park,  stretching  for  a  distance  of 
four  miles  along  both  banks  of  the  Schuylkill  River,  may  justly 
be  devoted  to  more  democratic  or  at  least  more  utilitarian  pur- 
poses. It  was  in  the  western  part  of  Fairmount  Park  that  the 
Centennial  Exposition  was  held.  After  its  disfigurements  had 
been  removed  Philadelphia  enjoyed  a  great  benefit  in  the  subse- 
quent improvements  and  in  the  art  gallery  and  horticultural 
building  left  there  as  monuments  of  the  exposition. 

Perhaps  the  jitney  may  find  a  more  natural  field  in  supplanting 
the  park  trolley,  leaving  the  city  streets  unmolested.^ 

If  Fairmount  Park  is  famed  for  priority,  Golden  Gate  Park, 
San  Francisco,  is  famed  for  the  miracle  of  beauty  conjured 
out  of  sand  dunes.  The  elder  Olmsted,  America's  greatest 
landscape  architect,  said  in  1869  it  was  hopeless  to  develop  a 
park  out  of  drifting  sand.  Nevertheless  judicious  planting  has 
gathered  figs  of  thistles.  No  city  park  in  the  United  States  has 
such  wealth  of  horticultural  and  arboreal  beauty.  Eucalyptus 
trees  from  Australia  rise  to  over  a  hundred  feet.  Japanese 
exotics  flourish  in  the  Tea  Garden.  Perfect  oiled  roads  lead 
from  the  acme  of  cultivation  in  the  oldest  sections  to  the  crude 
planting  designed  to  hold  down  the  sand  on  the  ocean  front. 

Golden  Gate  Park  is  a  garden  of  Eden,  if  not  an  entrance  to 
the  heavenly  city. 

Park  Systems 

Most  of  the  important  parks  of  American  cities  are  what  may 
be  called  outer  parks.     They  are  neither  squares  nor  playgrounds, 

*  See  Detroit's  park  busses,  p.  30. 


282  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

nor  are  they  rural  parks  remote  from  the  city.  Their  number  is 
multiplying  so  fast  that  it  is  invidious  to  select  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives. The  way  cities  are  coming  to  be  served  by  parks 
is  doubtless  best  indicated  by  a  description  of  some  of  the  park 
systems  of  America.  Every  large  city  recognizes  the  necessity 
now  of  uniting  its  inner  and  outer  parks  so  that  the  two  accepted 
standards  may  be  realized :  first,  that  no  one  shall  live  more 
than  half  a  mile  from  a  place  of  recreation,  and  second,  that 
the  city  shall  have  sufficient  park  area  to  provide  one  acre  for 
each  hundred  inhabitants. ^ 

Omaha  boasts  that  its  thirteen  parks  and  playgrounds  are 
so  well  distributed  that  no  home  in  the  city  is  more  than  fifteen 
minutes  distant  from  a  place  of  public  recreation. 

Kansas  City's  park  system  ranks  next  to  that  of  Boston  in 
completeness.  In  1896  parks  and  boulevards  were  laid  out 
beyond  the  ambition  of  other  cities  by  the  method  of  benefit 
assessment,  levying  upon  the  areas  benefited  for  the  cost  of  parks 
and  boulevards.  A  $10,000,000  system  has  thus  been  developed, 
including  some  of  the  most  beautiful  hinterland  of  Kansas  City, 
a  beautiful  drive  along  the  bluff  overlooking  the  Missouri 
River,  a  picturesque  drive  through  ravines,  and  several  boule- 
vards blazed  through  slums.  The  physical  and  social  improve- 
ments have  abundantly  justified  the  method  and  established  an 
invaluable  precedent  for  other  cities. 

"I'm  from  Missouri"  may  be  the  words  of  a  missionary 
rather  than  a  skeptic. 

When  a  park  commission  was  created  in  Spokane  in  June,  1907, 
they  took  over  a  total  park  area  of  173  acres,  two-thirds  of  which 
was  unimproved  and  encumbered  with  $20,000  of  debts,  while 
the  appropriation  for  the  whole  year  had  been  expended.  The 
commission  secured  a  temporary  loan  of  $12,000  and  later  a  bond 
issue  of  $100,000.  Olmsted  Brothers  were  invited  to  make  a 
park  plan.     There  was  still  insufficient  money,  but  by  1911, 

'  Among  the  notable  large  parks  that  can  be  called  outer  only  in  the  technical 
sense,  because  their  cities  have  surrounded  them,  are  Franklin  Park  in  Boston, 
Prospect  Park  in  Brooklyn,  Forest  Park  in  Saint  Louis,  Audubon  and  City  Parks  in 
New  Orleans,  City  Park  in  Denver,  and  the  famous  park  a  mile  square  that  was 
boldly  laid  out  at  the  very  center  of  the  city  plan  of  San  Diego.  Among  the  cities 
that  have  started  with  a  clean  sheet  and  laid  out  park  systems  of  a  comprehensive 
character  are  Indianapolis,  Louisville,  Memphis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha  and  the 
cities  of  the  state  of  Washington. 


PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS  283 

when  the  commission  plan  gave  the  city  a  new  lease  of  life,  the 
park  area  had  been  increased  to  826  acres.  In  May,  191 1,  a 
bond  issue  of  one  million  dollars  was  voted.  Although  the  city 
did  not  get  the  benefit  of  the  full  amount,  the  park  area  was 
increased  to  1934  acres,  following  the  plans  of  the  landscape 
architects.  In  five  years'  time  Spokane  had  raised  itself  from 
thirty-third  among  American  cities  in  its  park  provisions  to  one 
of  the  leading  cities  of  the  country,  measured  by  the  service- 
abiUty  of  nearly  2000  acres  of  park  space  to  125,000  people. 

Seattle's  park  system  is  notable,  like  those  of  Memphis  and 
Indianapolis,  because  of  its  recent  and  speedy  development. 
Out  of  $9,000,000  expended  in  securing  1800  acres  of  parks, 
playgrounds,  and  boulevards  $4,000,000  were  spent  between  1906 
and  191 2.  When  the  agitation  for  the  extension  of  parks  began, 
the  city  owned  six  park  areas,  only  three  of  which  were  improved, 
no  playgrounds  and  no  boulevards.  In  1914  the  city  had  seven 
parks,  twenty-three  playgrounds,  and  twenty-five  miles  of 
boulevard. 

Oklahoma  City  inaugurated  its  park  system  by  voting 
$400,000  worth  of  bonds  in  April,  1909.  The  majority  vote  of 
taxpayers  was  twenty-five  to  one.  Options  had  been  secured, 
and  a  boulevard,  twenty-eight  miles  long  and  two  hundred  feet 
wide,  was  laid  out  around  the  city.  It  includes  provision  for 
automobiles  in  the  middle  and  parkings  between  that  driveway 
and  the  carriage  drives,  with  further  parkings  beyond  these. 
There  are  no  grade  crossings  in  this  boulevard  circuit,  although 
it  has  to  cross  several  railway  yards.  Oklahoma  began  its  park 
system  with  outer  parks  and  boulevards  because  it  could  get 
the  land  cheap. 

Six  hundred  acres  of  excess  land  were  purchased  with  the 
expectation  that  the  increased  value  of  the  land  when  alienated 
would  cover  the  cost  of  the  system. 

Baltimore 

The  parks  of  Baltimore  are  notable  because  of  their  beauty 
and  the  method  of  financing  them.  Druid  Hill  Park  is  one  of 
the  famous  original  natural  parks  of  America  —  seven  hundred 
acres  in  extent,  with  many  miles  of  beautiful  driveways.  Balti- 
more has  nearly  fifty  parks  with  a  total  area  of  considerably 


284  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

over  2000  acres,  and  the  city  has  borne  a  direct  cost  of  only 
about  Sio,ooo.  In  1903  the  Municipal  Art  Society  employed 
the  Olmsted  Brothers  to  plan  the  park  extensions  of  Baltimore. 
The  people  voted  a  loan  of  $1,000,000,  but  this  was  to  be  repaid 
by  the  happy  method  that  Baltimore  has  for  meeting  its  park 
improvements.  In  i860  Baltimore  had  a  mayor  of  vision, 
Thomas  Swann.  He  persuaded  the  street  railway  company  to 
accept  a  franchise  that  involved  the  payment  of  20  per  cent  of 
its  gross  receipts  to  the  city  for  the  purchase  of  parks.  This 
was  subsequently  reduced  to  9  per  cent.  The  first  year  of  the 
operation  of  this  franchise  Baltimore  received  $33,000.  In 
1913  it  received  $585,000.  Thus  Baltimore's  street  car  patrons 
support  the  Baltimore  park  system. 

Baltimorean  strap  hangers  pay  their  tithes  into  their  own 
pockets  if  they  use  the  parks. 

Washington 

It  is  perhaps  prophetic  to  claim  that  Washington  has  a  park 
system.  Yet  in  spite  of  gaps  in  its  boulevards  and  exceptional 
advantages  enjoyed  by  the  northwestern  section  of  the  city, 
the  capital  of  the  country  has  such  a  wide  distribution  of  open 
spaces  that  it  is  more  completely  equipped  than  any  other  city 
in  the  country.  Its  recreative  facilities  are  not  so  great  as  those 
of  Boston  and  Chicago,  but  in  actual  park  spaces  it  equals  those 
two  and  a  number  of  other  cities  combined.  There  are  about 
350  park  reservations  in  Washington.  They  only  total  738 
acres,  but  they  represent  the  intelligent  and  aesthetic  use  of  the 
various  squares,  triangles,  and  circles  that  are  made  by  the  in- 
tersection of  Washington's  diagonal  streets. 

The  chief  natural  park  possessed  by  Washington  is  Rock 
Creek  Park,  a  place  of  very  rugged  beauty,  which  also  includes 
the  National  Zoological  Garden,  one  of  the  three  best  in  the 
country.  The  largest  of  Washington's  parks  is  the  Potomac 
Park,  which  has  been  made  on  the  flats  redeemed  from  the 
Potomac  River.  Upon  it  is  located  the  Lincoln  Memorial, 
from  which  the  Mall  extends  past  the  Washington  Monument 
to  the  Capitol  —  a  long  broad  park,  susceptible  of  the  rarest 
beauty  when  it  is  treated  as  it  promises  to  be.  Property  is 
being  secured  in  the  sections  of  the  city  that  have  not  hitherto 


PARKS   AND   BOULEVARDS  285 

been  favored.     These,  together  with  the  Capitol  grounds,  give 
Washington  a  rare  equipment. 

Leisure  and  beauty  are  abundant  in  Washington  but  recrea- 
tion is  lacking. 

Boston 

The  best  park  system  in  the  world  is  that  of  Boston  and  its 
suburbs.  The  chief  features  of  this  comprehensive  system 
are  the  Boston  Common  and  Public  Gardens,  the  seventy  small 
parks  and  playgrounds  scattered  about  Boston,  the  local 
parks  of  the  several  municipalities  in  the  metropolitan  district, 
and  the  metropolitan  reservations,  ranging  thus  from  central 
parks  and  local  playgrounds  to  great  rural  preserves. 

The  late  Charles  Eliot  wrote  a  letter  February  22,  1890,  in 
which  he  said : 

"  Within  ten  miles  of  the  State  House  there  still  remain  several  bits  of 
scenery  which  possess  uncommon  beauty  and  more  than  usual  refreshing 
power.  .  .  .  The  end  to  be  held  in  view  in  securing  reservations  of  this 
class  is  wholly  different  from  that  which  should  guide  the  state  commis- 
sion already  suggested,  and  the  writer  believes  this  different  end  might  better 
be  attained  by  an  incorporated  association,  composed  of  citizens  of  all  the 
Boston  towns,  and  empowered  by  the  state  to  hold  small  and  well  distrib- 
uted parcels  of  land  free  of  taxes,  just  as  the  public  library  holds  books, 
and  the  art  museum  pictures,  for  the  use  and  the  enjoyment  of  thepublic. . . ." 

With  amazing  rapidity  the  idea  grew  in  popular  favor,  the 
legislature  authorized  the  preliminary  investigation  com- 
mission, the  surveys  were  completed,  the  lands  acquired,  and, 
within  a  decade,  not  only  the  broad  plans  but  the  chief  details 
had  been  more  than  realized.  On  October  6,  1892,  Charles  Eliot 
wrote : 

"As  I  conceive  it  the  scientific  'park  system'  for  a  district  such  as  ours 
would  include  (i)  spaces  on  the  ocean  front,  (2)  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
shores  and  islands  of  the  bay,  (3)  the  courses  of  the  larger  tidal  estuaries, 
...  (4)  two  or  three  larger  areas  of  wild  forest  on  the  outer  rim  of  the 
inhabited  area,  (5)  numerous  small  squares,  playgrounds,  and  parks  in  the 
midst  of  the  dense  populations." 

The  consequence  of  his  persistence  was  the  presentation  and 
subsequent  enactment  of  a  bill  by  the  legislature  of  1892,  provid- 
ing for  a  metropolitan  park  commission  to  consider  the  prob- 


286  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

lem  of  parks  for  this  entire  district.  Mr.  Charles  Eliot  was  made 
landscape  architect,  and  Mr.  Sylvester  Baxter  secretary  of  the 
commission.  The  entire  summer  was  spent  in  investigating 
the  delightful  surroundings  of  Boston,  many  of  them  unknown 
territory  to  the  commission.  The  report  which  the  com- 
mission presented  in  1893  was  so  ambitious  that  even  the 
authors  of  the  plan  scarcely  hoped  for  its  acceptance.  Their 
expectation  was  that  an  educational  campaign  might  gradually 
bring  the  people  to  an  appreciation  of  this  comprehensive  scheme. 
Nevertheless,  the  unanimous  support  of  the  legislative  com- 
mittee to  which  the  bill  was  referred,  of  Mayor  Matthews  of 
Boston,  and  of  the  press  resulted  in  an  immediate  enactment 
of  the  bill.  The  Metropolitan  Parks  District  was  created, 
including  eleven  cities  and  twenty-five  towns,  a  park  com- 
mission was  appointed,  and  the  first  loan  of  $1,000,000  was 
authorized.  Since  then  over  $10,000,000  have  been  expended, 
of  which  $3,000,000  have  been  devoted  to  boulevards  and  park- 
ways and  the  remainder  to  securing  the  ten  thousand  acres  and 
more  in  the  reservations.  One-half  of  this  amount  was  secured 
from  the  several  municipalities  and  one-half  from  the  state. 

Dreams  come  true. 

The  fact  that  within  ten  years  so  ambitious  a  project  should 
have  been  not  only  carried  out  but  amplified,  is  perhaps  the 
most  encouraging  incident  in  American  municipal  progress  in  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  commission  to 
execute  these  plans  was  appointed  in  1895  ;  the  work  of  the  next 
seven  years  belongs  almost  in  the  realm  of  romance.  The 
commission  has  acquired  ten  thousand  acres  of  forest,  seashore 
and  river  bank,  has  not  merely  appropriated  some  of  this  area, 
but  has  developed  much  of  it. 

The  forest  reservations  aggregate  over  seven  thousand  acres, 
and  though  they  have  been  selected  on  the  basis  of  intrinsic 
merit,  by  a  happy  accident  they  are  so  located  as  to  make  an 
equable  distribution  of  park  areas  over  the  entire  metropolitan 
district.  The  most  important  of  these  reservations  is  the  Blue 
Hills,  covering  an  area,  if  we  take  in  two  lakes  on  the  margin 
of  the  reservation,  of  more  than  five  thousand  acres,  the  largest 
tract  devoted  to  recreation  belonging  to  any  municipality  in  the 
United  States.  This  reservation  lies  due  south  of  Boston  from 
nine  to  eleven  miles  distant  from  the  State  House. 


PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS  287 

In  a  semicircle  from  this  point,  running  to  the  Lynn  Woods, 
near  the  sea  on  the  north,  is  a  continuous  succession  of  river 
and  forest  reservations  along  the  Neponset,  Charles  and 
Mystic  rivers,  together  with  the  local  parks  of  Boston,  Brookline 
and  Cambridge,  and  including  the  other  great  reservation  of 
the  metropolitan  commission  on  the  north,  Middlesex  Fells. 
Middlesex  Fells  contains  over  eighteen  hundred  acres  of  wild 
and  rocky  woodland,  to  which  must  be  added  eleven  hundred 
acres  held  by  the  metropolitan  water  board  and  the  local  water 
boards  of  Winchester  and  Medford,  which,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  also  constitute  a  park  area.  The  Lynn  Woods, 
over  two  thousand  acres  in  area,  forms  another  one  of  the  local 
parks  which  must  be  included  in  the  provision  for  the  metro- 
politan district,  because  of  its  great  beauty  and  extent,  although, 
like  Franklin  Park  in  Boston,  it  is  not  included  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Metropolitan  Park  Commission.  The  metro- 
politan district  presents  a  fme  combination  of  rivalry  and  co- 
operation. 

This  great  metropolitan  system,  then,  includes  forest  reserva- 
tions in  the  first  place ;  in  the  second,  the  protection  of  twelve 
miles  of  seashore  for  the  benefit  of  the  public ;  in  the  third  in- 
stance the  preservation  of  the  banks  of  nearly  all  the  streams 
in  the  metropolitan  district  —  fifty-six  miles ;  and  fourthly,  a 
system  of  parkways  and  boulevards  which  will  connect  all  of 
these  different  elements. 

Following  the  example  of  Boston,  other  Massachusetts  cities 
have  undertaken  to  make  amends  for  the  neglect  of  the  past  by 
redeeming  portions  of  their  shore  line.  There  has  been  created 
for  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  a  board  of  Trustees  of 
Public  Reservations,  which  has  reported  on  the  condition  of 
every  city  and  village  on  the  seashore,  has  indicated  what  they 
have  already  done  to  preserve  their  public  holdings  and  what 
ought  to  and  can  now  be  done.  They  point  out  the  contrast 
between  Lynn  with  its  magnificent  woods  and  other  considerable 
towns,  such  as  Gloucester,  which  have  nothing.  Nearly  every 
one  of  these  cities  owns  some  little  spot  from  which  the  sea  can 
be  enjoyed,  sometimes  including  a  portion  of  the  shore.  For  the 
most  part  they  have  allowed  the  old  commons  and  other  public 
lands  to  slip  out  of  their  hands,  except  in  the  island  of  Nantucket, 
where  there  are  still  one  thousand  acres  of  undivided  common. 


288  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

It  is  worth  mentioning  that  the  preservation  of  Lynn  Woods  by 
the  park  and  water  boards  is  in  reality  a  restoration  to  pubUc 
ownership  of  two  thousand  acres  of  woodland  which  was  once 
a  common. 
Yankee  thrift  is  just  being  socialized. 

Rural  Parks 

The  rural  parks  of  Boston  represent  a  more  complete  system 
than  any  other  city  boasts.  Its  nearest  rival  is  Essex  County, 
New  Jersey.  Perhaps  the  most  encouraging  feature  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  these  two  great  systems  is  the  expedition  with 
which  it  was  accomphshed.  Within  ten  years  by  an  expenditure 
of  ten  milUon  dollars  the  Boston  district  had  added  to  its  park 
provisions  ten  thousand  acres.  In  Essex  County,  New  Jersey, 
an  expenditure  of  five  million  dollars  in  eight  years  gave  them 
a  park  system  of  3600  acres.  According  to  Alonzo  Church,  first 
secretary  of  the  commission,  "When  the  commission  came  into 
being  in  1895  there  were,  within  a  county  of  about  ten  miles 
square  and  containing  a  population  of  three  hundred  thousand 
people,  only  twenty-five  acres  of  usable  park  land.  This  was  com- 
prised in  the  few  public  squares  in  the  cities  of  Newark  and  Orange, 
which  the  foresight  of  the  early  settlers  had  reserved." 

More  than  one  pubhc  school  has  a  campus  larger  than 
Newark's  park  system  in  1895. 

Two  great  accomplishments  must  be  credited  to  the  Essex 
County  Park  Commissioners.  They  provided  parks  and  play- 
grounds near  the  congested  districts  by  utilizing  land  which 
was  entirely  suitable  for  recreation  but  was  virtually  valueless 
for  building  purposes,  thus  furnishing  parks  at  a  minimum  ex- 
pense in  the  localities  most  needing  them.  They  also  appro- 
priated some  of  the  most  beautiful  natural  scenery  of  their  very 
picturesque  county  by  reserving  hilltops  and  slopes  beyond  the 
present  area  of  settlement.  One  of  these,  Eagle  Rock,  the  sum- 
mit of  one  ridge  of  the  Orange  Mountains,  rises  abruptly  1 5c  feet 
from  the  plain  below,  and  is  said  to  give  an  outlook  "over  more 
human  habitations  than  from  any  other  natural  elevation  in 
the  world."  The  view  includes  Newark  and  the  Oranges, 
Elizabeth,  Bayonne,  and  Greater  New  York  with  a  population 
of  six  or  seven  millions. 


PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS  289 

On  the  other  side  of  this  ridge,  and  particularly  in  the  other 
mountain  reservation,  one  may  wander  for  miles  out  of  sight  of 
human  habitation. 

The  Essex  County  park  system  is  in  a  sense  a  contribution  to 
Metropolitan  New  York.  It  would  be  more  accessible  to  Man- 
hattan than  the  parks  of  Staten  Island  even  if  that  virgin  area 
were  not  innocent  of  parks.  New  York's  rural  advantages, 
already  under  public  control,  should  also  include  the  Hudson 
County  Park  system  which  is  designed  to  connect  the  Essex 
County  system  with  Palisades  Park.  A  joint  commission  of 
the  states  of  New  Jersey  and  New  York  is  responsible  for  the 
Palisades  Interstate  Park.  It  starts  just  above  the  Fort  Lee 
Ferry  and  runs  along  the  Palisades  to  the  Harriman  tract  in 
the  Ramapo  Mountains.  This  tract  and  Bear  Mountain, 
added  to  the  intervening  area,  make  a  park  of  20,000  acres. 
Within  twenty-five  miles  of  the  City  Hall  there  are  over  30,000 
acres  of  park  space.  While  most  of  this  does  not  belong  to 
the  city  of  New  York,  it  puts  its  faciUties  within  range  of  com- 
parison with  Boston  and  Chicago. 

New  York  is  still  a  parasite,  while  Staten  Island  and  Black- 
well's  Island  do  not  furnish  public  recreation. 

Chicago  (or  rather  Cook  County)  has  been  authorized  to 
create  a  forest  reserve  district  by  the  expenditure  of  a  million 
dollars  a  year.  It  has  also  been  authorized  to  issue  $10,000,000 
in  bonds.  Chicago  is  now  sure  of  getting  the  beautiful  Skokie 
Marshes  on  the  north,  the  banks  of  the  Desplaines  River  on  the 
west,  the  highest  section  of  Cook  County  —  a  beautiful  wooded 
area  —  to  the  southwest,  and  the  banks  of  the  Little  Calumet 
River  that  leads  to  Lake  Michigan.  Chicago  will  thus  have  a 
girdle  of  rural  parks  on  the  city's  circumference.  If  it  develops, 
as  it  promises  to  do,  its  outer  boulevard  along  the  sand  bars  of 
Lake  Michigan  it  will  have  both  an  outer  and  an  inner  circle  of 
parks  and  boulevards  amounting  to  30,000  acres  or  more. 

Chicago  is  atoning  for  fiUing  up  all  of  its  first  park  with  its 
public  library  building. 

Denver's  mountain  drives,  already  described,  lead  to  two 
mountain  reservations  that  are  more  like  the  mountain  adjuncts 
of  European  resorts  than  anything  else  in  America.  With  the 
assistance  of  congressional  legislation,  so  that  government  lands 
were  sold  to  Denver  at  a  minimum  price,  the  city  has  been  able 


290 


AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 


to  annex  some  of  the  best  spots  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This 
land  has  been  made  accessible  now  by  beautiful  roads  and  is 
already  being  used  by  campers  and  hikers.^  For  those  who  have 
not  motor  cars  there  is  the  funicular  railroad  up  Lookout  Moun- 
tain. Boulder,  Colorado,  has  a  rural  park  that  ranks  perhaps 
next  in  size  to  the  Blue  Hills  Reservation  of  Boston  —  nearly 
3500  acres  on  the  eastern  face  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  accessible 
to  the  city  of  Boulder  by  trolley  lines.  The  park  is  approached 
by  an  ornamental  gateway  and  the  foreground  is  landscape- 
gardened.  It  contains  an  auditorium  with  a  seating  capacity 
of  5000. 

San  Jose  has  a  park  in  a  canyon  seven  miles  from  the  city, 
reached  by  road  and  trolley  car. 

Recreation  in  the  Parks 

One  of  the  most  helpful  aspects  of  park  development  in 
America  is  the  increase  of  patronage  following  the  multiplication 
of  activities  permitted  or  encouraged  in  the  parks.  The  athletic 
field  in  Prospect  Park,  Brooklyn  (which  has  twenty  baseball 
diamonds  and  eleven  cricket  fields),  the  West  Side  Park  in 
Jersey  City,  and  the  Meadow  in  Washington  Park,  Chicago, 
represent  an  encouragement  of  participants  rather  than  specta- 
tors that  marks  a  hopeful  era  in  American  health  and  recreation. 
The  National  Archery  Tournament  is  held  annually  in  the 
Washington  Park  meadow.  The  South  Parks  of  Chicago  pro- 
vide nearly  fifty  baseball  diamonds.  In  addition  to  the  areas 
flooded  for  skaters  twenty  ponds  are  kept  in  condition  for 
skating  by  the  South  Park  Commission  and  three  rinks  are 
maintained  for  curling.  The  ice  was  in  satisfactory  condition 
on  eighty-four  days  in  the  winter  of  1911-1912. 

Chicago  leads  in  tennis  provisions,  hundreds  of  courts  being 
maintained  in  the  city  parks.  Chicago  was  a  pioneer  in  pubhc 
golf  courses,  although  it  has  been  distanced  by  New  York,  Des 
Moines  and  other  cities  in  the  quaUty  of  the  Hnks.  Chicago 
has  two  public  golf  courses  in  Jackson  Park,  as  well  as  courses 
in  Garfield  and  Marquette  parks.  The  Jackson  Park  course 
of  not  quite  standard  length  has  been  patronized  by  ten  times  as 
many  people  in  one  day  as  are  dispatched  in  a  national  tourna- 

'  See  p.  311. 


PARKS   AND   BOULEVARDS  29 1 

ment.  That  golf  is  not  a  luxurious  game  for  the  leisure  class 
is  evidenced  by  the  signboard  at  Jackson  Park  that  says  the 
golf  shelter  will  be  open  at  4  :  30  a.m.  !  It  has  been  the  practice 
to  give  out  tickets,  often  requiring  people  to  wait  hours  before 
playing.  Chicago  is  now  experimenting  with  the  St.  Andrews 
method  of  assigning  hours  the  day  before.  Two  five-cent  car 
fares  enable  many  people  to  spend  most  of  their  waking  hours 
in  the  summer  at  the  Jackson  Park  golf  course,  Chicago,  as  they 
do  at  the  Revere  Beach  seashore  reservation,  Boston. 

A  mahogany  tan  may  be  acquired  for  ten  cents  a  day  by  people 
who  carry  their  own  lunch. 

Chicago  has  also  led  other  cities  in  the  provision  of  food  and 
refreshments  by  the  South  Park  Commission.  Until  the  recent 
advent  of  a  hopelessly  commercial  president,  the  South  Parks 
led  the  world  in  the  municipal  provision  of  refreshments.  Each 
park  and  playground  had  a  refectory,  where  food  of  the  best 
quality  was  supplied  at  cost,  and  no  concessionaire  defiled  the 
pubHc  grounds.  The  ice  cream  for  all  of  the  South  Parks  was 
prepared  at  the  refectory  in  Washington  Park.  Cleveland  and 
Tacoma  are  cities  where  the  profit  maker  has  been  eHminated 
in  the  supply  of  park  refreshments.  Other  cities  justify  the 
presence  of  the  concessionaire  by  the  character  of  the  refresh- 
ments supplied.  In  Central  Park,  New  York,  Prospect  Park, 
Brooklyn,  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  and  the  Zoological  Garden, 
Cincinnati,  there  is  provision  for  that  unhappy  rarity  of  Ameri- 
can life  —  outdoor  eating ! 

The  Japanese  Tea  Garden  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  resorts  to  be  found  anywhere. 
The  entire  atmosphere  is  Japanese  in  that  sub-tropical  park. 

Most  park  authorities  give  abundant  encouragement  to  picnic 
parties  so  that  they  may  provide  their  own  lunches  with  comfort 
and  convenience.  The  South  Parks  in  Chicago  put  no  restric- 
tions upon  private  lunches  but  set  a  force  of  men  to  work  after 
each  holiday  clearing  up  the  debris  left  by  the  multitude.  Be- 
fore the  afternoon  of  the  fifth  of  July  or  the  31st  of  May  in 
Chicago,  the  parks  have  resumed  their  normal  appearance, 
although  at  dawn  they  may  have  given  the  impression  of  having 
been  just  deserted  by  an  invading  army.  Birmingham  and 
many  other  cities  provide  wire  incinerators  in  which  people  may 
destroy  their  own  refuse.     Denver  and  Los  Angeles  in  their 


292  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

rural  parks  encourage  campers  by  building  stone  or  concrete 
stoves.  The  parks  are  thus  protected  against  fire,  while  both 
the  preparation  of  food  and  the  destruction  of  refuse  are  made 
easy  for  the  camper. 

Vandalism  disappears  as  public  possessions  multiply. 

The  question  of  charging  for  park  facilities  is  a  nice  one.  In 
Chicago  the  various  sports  are  encouraged  by  the  free  provision 
not  only  of  grounds,  but  of  lockers  and  baths.  In  the  Jackson 
Park  golf  course  the  shelter  contains  lockers  for  2000  men  and 
800  women,  to  which  an  individual  may  have  a  key  for  the  year. 
No  charge  is  made  for  these  or  for  soap  or  bath  towels  or  the  use 
of  the  golf  course.  No  charge  is  made  for  the  tennis  courts 
or  nets. 

People  may  take  "  the  land  of  the  brave  and  the  home  of  the 
free"  too  literally. 

Philadelphia  and  Cincinnati  have  admirable  zoological 
gardens  located  in  their  parks,  but  under  the  supervision  of 
private  societies  that  charge  admission.  The  zoological  gardens 
of  San  Francisco,  Washington  and  New  York  are  vastly  superior 
and  are  free.  These  three  cities  are  rivals  for  the  claim  of 
leading  in  zoological  provisions  in  America.  They  establish 
the  important  precedent  that  the  animals  shall  have  a  maximum 
amount  of  freedom,  as  well  as  the  spectators.  In  fifteen  years 
there  have  been  erected  in  Bronx  Park,  New  York,  fourteen 
animal  buildings  and  thirty-five  inclosures,  harboring  nearly  5000 
animals.  This  makes  the  Bronx  Park  Zoological  Garden  the 
largest  in  the  world. 

San  Jose  has  boldly  cut  the  Gordian  knot  by  providing  "pay- 
as-you-sit"  benches  in  the  parks.  The  Boston  Common  is  so 
jealously  guarded  that  the  authorities  feel  that  it  can  only  be 
enjoyed  by  patrons  who  are  awake. 

Municipal  Forestry 

The  forester  or  shade  tree  commission  is  now  a  municipal 
institution.  Many  small  cities  have  had  a  municipal 
forester  for  years,  chiefly  because  of  the  absence  of  parks. 
Small  cities  throughout  the  United  States  have  also  had 
generous  provision  for  trees  made  by  the  natural  inclinations 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  accustomed  to  them  in  the  country. 


PARKS   AND   BOULEVARDS  293 

While  the  larger  cities  have  ruthlessly  destroyed  trees  or  stupidly 
neglected  to  plant  them,  some  of  the  smaller  cities  have  actually 
had  too  many.  The  chief  function  of  municipal  forestry  is  to 
multiply  appropriate  trees  in  the  streets,  but  an  important 
secondary  function  is  to  thin  out  the  trees  so  that  they  are 
individually  well  proportioned  and  the  streets  sufficiently  and 
not  extravagantly  shaded.  The  larger  cities  that  have  had 
the  longest  experience  in  the  public  supervision  of  trees  are 
Washington  and  Louisville.  In  both  of  these  cities  the  public 
authorities  have  had  charge  of  the  streets  from  building  line 
to  building  line,  not  from  curb  to  curb  —  the  prevailing  custom. 
This  method  puts  the  private  property  owner  under  the 
same  sort  of  responsibility  in  which  the  owner  of  forests 
finds  himself  in  Europe.  The  trees  are  immediately  his,  but 
ultimately  the  city's,  and  he  cannot  neglect  them  at  will. 

As  William  Morris  said :  Let  no  one  profess  love  of  art  who 
wantonly  cuts  down  a  city  tree. 

Newark  is  the  city  and  New  Jersey  the  state  in  which  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  has  been  done  in  recent  years,  but  many 
other  cities  have  efficient  forestry  departments.  The  street 
department  of  Birmingham  offers  to  haul  away  tree  trimmings 
if  property  owners  will  notify  the  department.  Dallas  has 
established  a  city  nursery,  under  the  direction  of  the  park 
superintendent,  and  plans  to  sell  trees  at  cost  to  the  citizens. 
Denver  in  1913  distributed  5000  elms  and  3000  maples  to  the 
property  owners,  the  planting  to  be  done  under  the  direction 
of  the  city.  In  the  seven  years  previous  to  that  111,000  trees 
had  been  distributed,  75  per  cent  of  which  were  thought  to  have 
flourished.  Washington  spends  $43,000  a  year  on  its  street 
trees,  Buffalo  $50,000.  The  $7000  spent  by  Syracuse  for  the 
maintenance  of  45,000  trees  represents  fifteen  cents  per  tree 
per  annum,  as  compared  with  $1.25  per  tree  in  Paris  and  fifty 
cents  per  tree  in  Newark. 

Los  Angeles  initiated  in  California  the  method  of  tree  planting 
by  assessment.  A  state  law  was  passed  in  June,  1913,  establish- 
ing a  procedure  for  the  care,  planting  or  removal  of  street  trees. 
The  city  council  adopts  a  resolution,  which  is  referred  to  the 
shade  tree  commission  or  gardening  department,  which  reports 
to  the  council  the  general  character  of  the  improvement,  the 
cost,  the  relation  of  the  trees  to  the  streets,  alleys,  and  abutting 


294  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

lots,  the  assessment  per  front  foot.  If  the  council  approves 
of  the  report  a  hearing  is  arranged  for.  If  the  owners  of  the 
frontage  object,  a  similar  resolution  cannot  be  introduced  for  six 
months. 

Trees  are  as  necessary  to  a  city  street  as  gills  to  fish. 

George  A.  Parker,  the  Superintendent  of  Parks  of  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  one  of  the  best  informed  park  authorities  in  the 
country,  estimates  the  value  of  trees  in  his  city  on  the  same  basis 
on  wliich  land  values  have  been  determined.  He  appraises 
the  value  of  the  city  streets  of  Hartford  at  half  a  million  dollars. 
Hartford  has  about  one  tree  to  ten  persons ;  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, has  one  tree  to  five  persons  —  possibly  the  largest 
proportion  of  any  city  of  over  50,000  people.  This  is  particu- 
larly due  to  the  care  of  an  efficient  forester.  The  cities  of 
Massachusetts  have  had  a  long  and  tedious  struggle  to  protect 
their  trees  from  the  pests  that  have  infested  New  England  for 
several  years.  The  state  has  reimbursed  cities  for  expenditures 
in  routing  the  pests. 

The  cities  and  towns  of  Massachusetts  spent  three  and  one- 
half  millions  in  fighting  moths  from  1905  to  191 3 ;  the  Metro- 
politan Park  Commission  three-fourths  of  a  million. 

The  Entomological  Experiment  Station  at  Central  Park, 
New  York,  has  estimated  that,  partly  owing  to  the  large  impor- 
tations of  plants  from  abroad,  there  are  two  thousand  identified 
species  of  parasites  in  Central  Park.  The  protection  of  trees 
against  such  a  multiplicity  of  enemies  is  an  irresistible  argument 
for  the  city  forester  or  the  shade  tree  commission.  Private 
individuals  are  as  helpless  as  against  human  armies. 

Taking  to  the  woods  may  now  represent  valor  as  well  as  dis- 
cretion. 

Newark 

There  are  fifty-two  shade  tree  commissions  in  New  Jersey 
which  puts  it  to  the  front,  and  the  leading  city  in  the  state  is  its 
metropolis,  Newark.  Acting  under  the  state  law,  Newark 
created  a  Shade  Tree  Commission  in  1904.  This  commission 
was  given  "exclusive  and  abolute  control  and  power  to  plant,  set 
out,  maintain,  protect  and  care  for  shade  trees  in  any  of  the 
public  highways  of  the  municipality."  In  1905  the  commission 
was  given  control  of  the  parks  of  Newark.     The  commission 


PARKS   AND    BOULEVARDS  295 

has  performed  invaluable  service  in  saving  the  older  trees. 
In  ten  years  it  set  out  27,000  trees,  beautifying  180  miles  of 
streets.  A  city  nursery  has  been  established  that  serves 
both  the  parks  and  the  streets.  Educational  propaganda  has 
been  carried  on,  enlightening  the  citizens  regarding  the  value  of 
trees  and  their  care.  Seven  times  in  a  season  each  tree  has 
its  soil  opened  up  to  the  air  and  sun.  The  trees  are  set  out  by 
special  assessment,  but  the  subsequent  care  falls  upon  the  general 
tax.  Two  weeks'  notice  is  given  before  proceeding  with  work, 
but  Newark  has  had  very  little  opposition  from  the  citizens, 
who  recognize  that  the  work  is  more  cheaply  and  better  done 
than  individuals  could  perform  it. 

The  Shade  Tree  Commission  has  assisted  in  the  observance  of 
Arbor  Day  in  the  schools.  The  commission  has  issued  some 
very  attractive  hterature.  One  year  a  leaflet  called  "The  Tree 
Calendar"  was  published,  telling  of  the  life  of  the  tree  from 
month  to  month.  The  children  have  been  invited  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  rich  plant  life  of  Essex  County.  In  its 
mountain  reservations  are  found  most  of  the  flora  of  this  zone. 
Leagues  of  Shade  Tree  Protectors  have  been  organized  among 
the  school  children. 

"Back  to  the  land"  may  be  Utopian.  Forward  to  the  woods  is 
an  urban  obUgation. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
PUBLIC  RECREATION 

The  Joy  of  the  City 

The  joy  of  the  city  is  a  twentieth-century  discovery  in 
America.  In  1890  there  were  in  the  United  States  one  public 
playground,  one  pubHc  swimming  bath,  no  movies,  and  yet  the 
schoolhouses  were  closed  and  the  parks  inhospitable.  Commer- 
cial amusements  multiplied  rapidly  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century ;  public  play  began  to  be  organized.  Still  the  twentieth 
century  inherited  the  superstition  that  play  is  an  occupation 
of  childhood.  Schoolhouses  were  already  centers  of  play  as 
well  as  of  instruction  but  tradition  was  buttressed  by  legal 
precedent  when  an  endeavor  was  made  to  open  their  doors  to 
adults.  Why  has  a  vastly  increased  patronage  of  outdoor 
sports,  motion-picture  shows,  and  other  popular  forms  of  en- 
tertainment been  accompanied  by  a  wider  use  of  the  schoolhouse 
than  was  available  before  these  forms  of  recreation  were  dis- 
covered? It  must  be  that  the  American  is  beginning  to  appre- 
hend the  joy  of  the  city.  Joy  must  be  set  in  apposition  to 
monotony  and  care,  but  also  to  gaiety,  frivolity,  and  intoxica- 
tion. There  have  been  hilarity,  boisterousness,  and  intemper- 
ance without  joy.  The  unregulated  theater,  dance  hall,  and 
saloon  have  ministered  to  the  demand  for  recreation  without 
producing  joy.  It  is  the  public  forms  of  amusement,  the  use 
of  common  property,  that  signalize  a  new  urban  spirit. 

"Joy  cometh  in  the  morning."  The  twentieth  century  is  the 
dawn  of  a  new  day. 

Boston  First  in  Organized  Play 

Organized  life  takes  care  of  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  child's 
time.     "Street  and  alley  time"  includes  too  many  hours  of 

296 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  297 

the  city  child's  day.  Even  the  streets  in  New  York  and  Red- 
lands  are  consecrated  to  play  at  certain  holy  hours.  The  streets 
and  alleys  were  still  more  forbidding  in  1872  when  the  first 
Brookline  playground  was  established.  Twenty  years  later 
Boston  opened  the  Charlesbank  gymnasiums.  While  other 
cities  followed  steadily  —  Chicago  opening  a  playground  in  1893 
and  beginning  its  brilliant  history  with  the  Special  Park  Com- 
mission in  1899  —  Boston  remained  the  pioneer.  Its  original 
public  bathing  provisions  date  from  the  removal  of  the  embargo 
on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  1866.  They  have  been  perpetuated  in 
the  L  Street  Bath,  one  of  the  unique  institutions  of  America. 
This  batli  has  had  a  longer  continuous  history  than  anything  of 
its  kind  in  the  country.  Boston  also  established  a  public  ocean 
bathhouse  at  Revere  Beach  ahead  of  any  other  city.  Boston's 
Charlesbank  has  similarly  furnished  the  precedent  for  outdoor 
gymnasiums  elsewhere,  while  the  East  Boston  indoor  gym- 
nasium was  the  first  public  institution  of  its  kind  in  America. 

The  East  Boston  gymnasium  was  originally  a  transformed 
skating  rink  given  to  the  city  in  1897  by  a  public-spirited  woman. 
In  two  years'  time  Boston  had  begun  to  build  its  own  gymna- 
siums, starting  with  the  structure  in  South  Boston.  Simul- 
taneously, the  public  bath  movement  was  growing,  and  Boston's 
subsequent  gymnasiums  have  usually  included  showers  and 
swimming  pools.  The  buildings  are  taxed  by  the  attendance  of 
people  at  the  classes.  The  physical  director  is  assisted  by  a 
medical  examiner  of  each  sex.  Records  are  kept  by  which 
people  can  determine  their  progress.  These  have  proved 
invaluable  to  the  civil  service  candidates  for  the  police  and  fire 
departments.  Public  gymnasiums  have  incidentally  been  an 
indirect  aid  to  the  police  department,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
decrease  in  juvenile  arrests  in  their  neighborhood. 

Putting  the  shot  seldom  leads  to  the  ball  and  chain  or  the  hand- 
spring to  the  lock  step. 

New  York  Playgrounds 

When  one  considers  that  there  were  ninety-four  playgrounds 
in  Greater  New  York  in  1914  it  seems  incredible  that  there  was 
virtually  none  in  the  nineteenth  century.  According  to  the 
Tenement  House  Committee  of  1894  : 


298  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

"While  New  York,  including  the  thinly  populated  annexed  districts, 
ranks  sixth  among  cities,  New  York  below  the  Harlem  has  a  greater  den- 
sity per  acre  than  any  other  city  in  the  world,  namely,  145.2  per  acre.  Paris 
comes  next  with  a  density  of  125.2  per  acre,  and  Berlin  follows  with  113.6. 
.  .  .  Sanitary  district  A  of  the  eleventh  ward  contained,  June  i,  1894,  as 
many  as  986.4  persons  to  every  one  of  its  thirty-two  acres.  It  may  be  that 
these  figures  are  equaled  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  but  the  only  informa- 
tion at  hand  indicates  but  one  district  approaching  this  —  a  part  of  Bom- 
bay, which  had  in  1881  a  population  of  759.66  to  the  acre,  in  an  area  of 
45.06  acres.  .  .  .  The  densest  small  section  of  Europe  seems  to  be  the 
Josef stadt,  of  Prague,  with  its  485.4  to  the  acre,  but  New  York's  tenth  ward 
exceeds  this  with  not  less  than  626.26  to  the  acre,  and  the  tenth  ward  has 
nearly  five  times  the  acreage  of  the  crowded  district  of  Prague." 

The  recognition  of  the  needs  of  the  tenement  district  dates 
back  to  1857,  when  a  legislative  committee  inquired  into  the 
condition  of  the  New  York  slums.  They  revealed  the  fact  that 
the  evils  of  New  York's  overcrowded  East  Side  were  not  due  to 
the  original  sin  of  the  inhabitants,  but  to  such  congestion  as 
has  been  indicated  above.  It  was  not  until  1879,  however, 
that  the  first  effort  was  made  to  correct  these  evils.  The 
churches  became  interested,  a  citizens'  committee  was  appointed, 
and  out  of  that  agitation  grew  the  Tenement  House  Commission 
of  1884.  Model  tenements  were  erected,  sanitary  regulations 
were  introduced,  occasional  death-traps  were  destroyed,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  next  decade  that  the  idea  took  root  that  tene- 
ments might  be  torn  down  not  to  make  way  for  other  tenements, 
even  though  these  might  be  "models,"  but  for  playgrounds. 
Mr.  Jacob  Riis  has  told  the  story  often  of  the  destruction  of 
Mulberry  Bend,  in  which  his  experienced  hand  as  police  reporter 
and  friend  of  the  children  was  conspicuous.  The  Tenement 
House  Commission  of  1884,  as  he  says,  "had  rather  timidly 
suggested  that  a  street  be  cut  through  it  to  let  light  and  air 
into  the  bad  block."  Three  years  more  were  required  to  reach 
the  decision  that  the  entire  three  acres  should  be  wiped  out. 

In  1887  an  act  was  passed  which  authorized  New  York  to 
spend  $1,000,000  a  year  for  the  establishment  of  small  parks, 
and  Mayor  Hewitt,  who  was  the  author,  said,  "The  playground 
was  assumed  to  be  an  essential  part  of  the  park." 

This  act  would  have  made  the  creation  of  Mulberry  Bend  Park 
easy,  had  it  not  been  for  official  delay.  Mr.  Riis  dogged  the 
steps  of  the  officials  until  he  secured  the  admission  from  one  of 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  299 

them  in  the  city  hall  that  "  no  one  down  there  had  been  taking 
any  interest  in  the  thing."  This  gave  him  his  text  for  the  news- 
papers; the  outcry  which  was  raised  resulted  in  the  first  steps 
being  taken  to  get  rid  of  the  tenements.  Two  years  were  re- 
quired to  get  a  map  of  the  proposed  park  filed  under  the  law, 
six  years  more  were  occupied  in  condemning  forty-one  pieces  of 
property.  The  cost  to  the  city  in  the  original  estimate  was 
$1,000,000,  and  an  assessment  of  half  a  million  was  laid  on  the 
surrounding  property  because  of  the  unquestioned  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  opening  so  much  space  and  making  it  attractive. 
The  legal  talent  employed  by  the  landlords,  however,  was  able 
to  persuade  the  courts  that  the  park  was  an  injury  and  an  extra 
burden  of  half  a  million  was  laid  upon  the  city.  Finally,  with 
all  the  houses  down  and  the  space  open  to  the  sunlight,  another 
year  was  required  before  its  transformation  into  a  park  began. 
According  to  the  law  of  1887,  allowing  $1,000,000  in  one  year 
for  park  purposes,  $8,000,000  might  have  been  spent,  but  when 
the  final  action  came  to  be  taken  on  Mulberry  Bend  Park  a  special 
law  and  appropriation  were  necessary  because  the  amount 
needed  at  once  was  more  than  $1,000,000. 

The  establishment  of  Mulberry  Bend  Park  was,  however, 
only  the  first  step,  as  it  remained  a  park  with  inclosed  lawns, 
on  which  even  the  famous  fighter  who  more  than  any  one  else 
secured  this  boon  for  the  children,  was  not  allowed  to  tread 
without  the  forbidding  command  of  the  police  reminding  him 
of  the  ubiquitous  sign,  "Keep  off  the  grass!"  In  addition  to 
the  extensive  grass  plots,  there  are  broad  concrete  walks,  and 
in  one  end  a  shelter,  but  no  space,  except  such  as  a  widened 
street  affords,  for  the  children  to  play. 

In  1889  the  Brooklyn  Society  for  Parks  and  Playgrounds 
was  incorporated  under  a  new  state  law. 

The  Tenement  House  Commission  of  1894  recommended 
the  clearing  of  buildings  for  the  establishment  of  Seward  Park. 
The  bill  became  a  law  in  1895,  providing  that  construction  should 
begin  within  three  years.  Another  Tenement  House  Committee 
sat  and  investigated  conditions  without  anything  being  done. 
In  1897  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn  received  an  appropriation  of 
$30,000  for  schools  and  playgrounds.  Twenty  playgrounds 
were  maintained  for  two  months.  It  was  only  after  the  Tene- 
ment Law  of  1 90 1  had  been  passed  that  a  municipal  playground 


300  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

began  to  materialize.  Charles  B.  Stover,  whose  pioneer  efforts 
were  finally  recognized  by  his  appointment  at  the  head  of  the 
Manhattan  Park  Commission,  had  urged  at  the  beginning  of 
the  playground  movement  that  Tompkins  Park  be  equipped  for 
the  use  of  children.  His  request  received  the  answer,  "No, 
sir !  In  the  administration  of  the  parks,  we  must  not  cater  to 
any  particular  class  in  the  community." 

This  same  park  administration  promptly  laid  out  a  Speedway 
for  fast  trotters  in  Central  Park,  as  soon  as  the  legislature  per- 
mitted it. 

When  the  land  along  congested  Hester  Street  was  finally 
cleared  in  1898,  a  voluntary  organization  —  the  Outdoor  Recrea- 
tion League  —  had  to  equip  it  for  play  because  of  the  handicap 
of  New  York's  historic  debt  limit.  A  New  York  contractor 
took  nine  months  to  level  the  ground.  Then  the  Outdoor 
Recreation  League  had  to  maintain  the  improvised  playground 
and  guarantee  to  save  the  city  of  New  York  any  expense  for 
accidents.  On  June  3,  1899,  the  playground  was  opened  under 
these  voluntary  auspices.  It  was  so  popular  and  successful 
that  plans  for  the  treatment  of  Seward  Park  were  made  and 
presented  to  the  Park  Commission.  That  august  body,  how- 
ever, had  its  own  conception  of  the  needs  of  this  most  crowded 
area  in  the  world.  Their  words  were:  "These  plans  contem- 
plate a  small  park  in  the  natural  style,  with  lawns  and  shrubber- 
ies covering  as  large  an  area  as  possible." 

Under  pressure,  revised  plans  were  made  by  the  Commission 
which  provided  for  one-tenth  of  the  space  to  be  used  as  a  play- 
ground. The  insatiable  friends  of  the  children  would  not  be 
content  with  this  sop,  and  their  agitation  finally  resulted  in  a 
playground  and  stadium  that  are  probably  the  best  patronized 
on  the  globe.  Streets  were  closed,  gymnasium  and  baths  were 
provided,  and  the  people  of  this  neighborhood  were  able  to 
celebrate  May  Day,  1903,  in  a  public  playground.  The  im- 
provements have  continued,  sometimes  with  undue  elaboration, 
until  these  four  tiny  blocks  of  Manhattan  have  been  trans- 
formed into  Seward  Park  playground  at  a  cost  of  between  two 
and  three  million  dollars. 

Many  a  big  city  could  get  a  whole  park  system  for  the  cost  of 
a  belated  playground  in  New  York. 

New  York,  like  other  cities,  has  had   to  meet  the  question 


Seward  Park,  New  York's  Three  Million  Dollar  Playground. 


The  Roman  Bathhouse  in  the  Grove,  Kansas  City,  Missouri. 


PUBLIC    RECREATION  301 

whether  the  park  or  school  authorities  should  administer  the  play- 
grounds. Whereas  in  Chicago  the  playground  development  has 
been  chiefly  independent,  in  New  York  it  has  been  increasingly  a 
function  of  the  Board  of  Education.  In  1913  there  was  an  at- 
tendance of  two  and  a  half  millions  at  the  recreation  centers  and 
over  6,000,000  at  the  vacation  playgrounds.^  One  hundred  and 
sixty-three  school  buildings  were  used  as  after-school  play  centers, 
accommodating  about  three  hundred  children  each  at  a  cost 
of  a  little  over  one  cent  apiece.  One  thousand  teachers  are 
employed  to  direct  the  play  in  the  New  York  school  playgrounds. 
Most  schools  are  equipped  with  shower  baths,  which  are  as 
popular  as  any  of  the  organized  games.  During  the  summer  a 
dozen  school  buildings  with  available  roofs  are  thrown  open  to 
the  public  in  the  evening.  The  roof  playgrounds  are  covered 
with  wire  netting  so  that  they  are  safe  for  children.  One  in 
five  of  the  New  York  playgrounds  is  dedicated  to  mothers  and 
babies.  The  only  other  children  admitted  are  those  who  are 
"little  mothers."  The  Board  of  Health  nurses  assist  the  play- 
ground staff  by  giving  instruction  as  well  as  services  to  the 
mothers  of  babies. 

New  York  is  taking  play  seriously. 

The  enormous  expense  of  playgrounds  in  the  congested  parts 
of  New  York  has  led  to  the  setting  aside  of  streets  at  certain 
hours  for  the  play  of  children.  Police  Commissioner  Arthur 
Woods  closed  to  trafhc  in  1914  one  block  in  each  of  twenty-five 
streets  in  Manhattan,  Brooklyn  and  the  Bronx  between  3  and 
6 :  30  P.M.  A  sign  is  put  up  diverting  traffic,  and  police  supervise 
the  area.  The  children  are  given  considerable  latitude,  even 
basket  ball  and  baseball  being  permitted.  The  complaints  from 
the  neighbors  have  been  insignificant. 

A  simple  device  for  furnishing  public  amusement  is  found  in 
the  recreation  piers  of  New  York.^  There  has  been  added  to 
one  of  the  regular  docks  a  second  story  without  interference  with 
the  shipping  on  the  lower  floor,  and  a  large  space  is  thus  secured 
stretching  out  over  the  water,  where  on  sultry  summer  evenings 
there  is  access  to  such  refreshing  breeze  as  may  exist.     Eight 

•  Appendix  i . 

^  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Chicago  also  have  recreation  piers.  The 
latest  are  those  of  Chicago  and  Baltimore.  In  addition  to  the  open  pier,  there  is  an 
assembly  hall,  with  foyer  and  anterooms  for  indoor  recreation. 


302  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

recreation  piers  are  found  on  the  North  and  East  rivers  of  New 
York. 

Chicago  Playgrounds 

The  first  step  in  the  Chicago  playground  movement  was  taken 
when  the  residents  of  Hull  House  in  1892  equipped  and  super- 
vised a  piece  of  land  owned  by  William  Kent.  Other  settle- 
ments secured  voluntary  aid  to  open  playgrounds  in  their 
neighborhoods.  In  1895  the  spirit  of  the  playground  made  it- 
self felt  among  the  West  Park  Commissioners  and  an  outdoor 
gymnasium  and  swimming  bath  were  built  in  Douglas  Park. 
Coincidently  with  the  experiments  in  philanthropic  playgrounds 
there  was  a  movement  for  vacation  schools.  In  1898  the  City 
Council  of  Chicago  appropriated  $1000  toward  a  fund  raised 
by  the  Vacation  School  and  Playground  Committee  of  the 
Women's  Clubs  of  Chicago.  Six  playgrounds,  improvised  in 
very  inadequate  school  yards,  were  opened  in  the  summer  of 
1898.  Modest  as  they  were,  they  made  such  an  impression  that 
the  City  Council  authorized  the  Special  Park  Commission  in 
June,  1899.  The  Commission  consisted  at  first  of  eight  council- 
men,  a  representative  of  each  of  the  other  three  park  boards 
and  nine  citizens.  It  was  organized  to  plan  a  comprehensive 
park  system  for  Chicago,  especially  with  reference  to  the  con- 
gested areas,  and  to  supplement  Chicago's  deficiencies  by  con- 
ducting playgrounds.  It  secured  from  the  legislature  authority 
for  the  several  park  boards  to  issue  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
two  and  a  half  millions.  As  a  result  of  the  proposals  for  a  com- 
prehensive park  and  playground  system  and  the  appropriation 
secured  by  this  Special  Park  Commission  Chicago's  remarkable 
playground  system  was  inaugurated. 

Chicago  has  opened  playgrounds  at  the  rate  of  three  a  year. 

In  addition  to  the  elaborate  provision  of  playgrounds  by  the 
rejuvenated  park  commissions  of  the  three  sides  of  the  city,  the 
Special  Park  Commission  has  continued  to  conduct  small  play- 
grounds on  pieces  of  ground  owned  by  the  city  or  leased  for  a 
nominal  rental  or  loaned  by  owners.  In  a  few  cases  the  play- 
grounds have  been  extensive  enough  to  permit  of  ball  fields,  but 
for  the  most  part  they  have  been  compact  areas,  the  one  invari- 
able use  of  which  has  been  for  skating  rinks  in  the  winter.  In 
the  sunmier  they  have  been  equipped  with  the  usual  shelter, 


PUBLIC  RECREATION  303 

sand  piles  and  apparatus.  They  are  in  charge  of  attendants 
who  keep  the  playgrounds  open  morning,  afternoon  and  evening 
seven  days  in  the  week.  This  branch  of  Chicago's  playground 
system  has  grown  until  it  includes  now  nineteen  playgrounds 
and  four  bathing  beaches.  The  Commission  also  has  the  care 
of  sixty-five  open  spaces  and  the  city's  trees,  the  city  forester 
being  an  employee  of  the  department. 

The  Special  Park  Commission  began  with  an  appropriation  of 
$10,000  a  year.  In  fifteen  years  the  expenditure  had  grown  ten- 
fold. 

The  most  dramatic  development  in  the  American  playground 
movement  was  due  to  the  initiative  of  J.  Frank  Foster,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  South  Parks  of  Chicago.  The  South  Park  system 
has  had  exceptional  facilities  because  the  sectional  division  of 
park  management  in  Chicago  has  given  the  parks  of  that  side 
of  the  city  immense  revenues  from  the  taxes  of  the  business  area. 
They  have  thus  been  able  to  set  a  pace  that  the  North  and  West 
Sides  have  had  difficulty  in  following.  When  they  proposed  to 
establish  a  playground  system  Mr.  Foster  visited  the  leading 
cities  of  America  and  came  home  with  a  proposal  to  improve 
upon  all  of  them.  Thereupon  the  standard  playground  was 
established  experimentally  at  McKinley  Park  and  subsequently 
in  the  whole  system  designed  by  the  South  Park  Commissioners. 

Fourteen  playgrounds,  in  area  from  five  to  sLxty  acres,  were 
secured,  for  the  most  part  in  the  congested  sections  of  the  South 
Side.  Nearly  all  of  them  were  equipped  with  a  field  house  con- 
taining an  assembly  hall,  club  rooms  and  a  branch  of  the  public 
library.  In  wings  or  separate  buildings  indoor  gymnasiums  and 
swimming  tanks  were  provided,  one  of  each  for  each  sex.  About 
these  buildings  were  located  the  outdoor  gymnasiums  and 
playgrounds.  There  is  no  charge  made  for  any  of  these  facilities, 
the  expenses  being  met  by  general  taxation.  It  is  estimated 
that  spectators  and  participants  in  the  various  functions  of  these 
playgrounds  number  15,000,000  a  year. 

All  honor  to  Jacob  Riis  and  Charles  B.  Stover,  but  Chicago 
playgrounds  lead  the  world  because  of  their  Foster  father. 

The  athletic  features  were  developed  under  the  leadership 
of  Mr.  E.  B.  De  Groot,  who  was  the  first  successful  director  of 
one  of  the  Uttle  school  playgrounds  established  by  the  Women's 
Clubs.     Swimming  is  provided  in  eleven  outdoor  cement  pools 


304  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

from  June  to  September.  Teams  of  different  ages  from  the 
various  playgrounds  engage  in  competitive  athletics.  Meetings 
of  all  sorts  are  held  in  the  assembly  halls  and  on  the  athletic 
fields.  Concerts,  stereopticon  lectures,  plays  and  dances  are 
given  in  the  auditoriums,  sometimes  by  the  park  commissioners 
and  in  other  cases  by  organized  groups  of  the  people.* 

The  Commission  has  remained  conservative  in  forbidding 
discussion  of  religious  or  political  subjects  in  the  field  houses,  as 
distinguished  from  Los  Angeles,  where  the  field  houses  have 
been  used  for  poUtical  meetings  and  voting.  Chicago,  like 
Los  Angeles,  uses  all  of  its  recreational  facilities  on  Sundays, 
while  Boston  encourages  vice  by  closing  its  playgrounds.  These 
playgrounds  have  become  an  indispensable  element  in  the  life 
of  Chicago.  They  are  felt  to  belong  to  the  people  in  most 
senses,  the  park  commission  only  remaining  unenlightened 
regarding  the  propriety  of  free  speech  in  the  people's  own  build- 
ings. 

These  pubhc  servants  are  honest  stewards  of  the  public  wealth, 
but  their  annual  reports  give  no  adequate  account  of  their 
stewardship  to  the  possessors  of  this  wealth. 

The  Chicago  West  Park  Commission  has  followed  the  lead 
of  the  South  Park  Commission  and  opened  seven  playgrounds, 
modeled  after  those  of  the  South  Side.  The  Lincoln  Park 
Board  on  the  North  Side  of  the  city  has  been  compelled  to 
follow  these  precedents,  although  Lincoln  Park  is  more  con- 
veniently located  to  that  compactly  built  area  than  any  park 
on  the  other  side  of  the  city. 

Chicago  has  a  score  of  playgrounds  superior  to  any  in  existence 
in  the  world  before  the  twentieth  century.^ 

One  of  the  best  by-products  of  playgrounds  has  been  the  dis- 
covery that  parks  and  other  vacant  spaces  have  had  unused 
possibihties.  A  vacant  lot  may  involve  some  expense  if  it  is 
to  be  made  into  a  suitable  ball  ground,  but  it  can  be  transformed 
into  a  skating  rink  in  winter  by  the  labors  of  municipal  servants. 

•  For  the  form  of  application  for  use  of  hall  and  clubrooms  from  the  South  Park 
Commissioners,  see  Appendix  2. 

*  If  a  complete  list  of  Chicago's  year-round  recreation  centers,  seasonal  play- 
grounds and  public  beaches  were  made,  it  would  be:  (i)  Year-round  Parks:  South 
Parks,  14;  West  Parks,  4;  Lincoln  Park,  3.  (2)  Seasonal  Playgrounds:  South 
Parks,  5;  West  Parks,  2;  Lincoln  Park,  i ;  Special  Parks,  19.  (3)  Public  Beaches: 
South  Parks,  4 ;   Lincoln  Park,  i ;    Special  Parks,  3. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  305 

Chicago  showed  the  country  how  to  have  the  cheapest,  most 
constant  and  safest  skating  by  flooding  vacant  lots.  The  fire 
department  floods  them,  the  electric  lighting  department 
illuminates  them  and  the  police  protect  them.  Chicago  also 
clears  its  park  lagoons  of  snow,  provides  shelters,  and  safe- 
guards the  skaters,  but  the  vacant  lots  are  serviceable  on  many 
days  when  skating  is  not  safe  in  the  parks.  The  flooding  of  the 
vacant  lots  has  led  to  flooding  park  and  playground  areas 
in  order  to  get  a  maximum  of  service. 

A  vacant  lot  is  about  1000  per  cent  more  available  for  the 
skater  than  Lake  Michigan. 

Los  Angeles  Recreative  Centers 

No  city  can  compete  with  Chicago  in  the  number  of  play- 
grounds and  equipment.  Play  facilities  are  so  fully  appre- 
ciated in  Chicago  that  the  parks  have  been  transformed  by 
supplementing  their  rural  attractions  with  the  diversified 
features  of  the  playground.  Los  Angeles  has  advanced  beyond 
Chicago,  adding  the  element  of  personal  interest  by  employing 
people  whose  qualifications  fit  them  to  be  not  only  custodians 
and  athletic  directors,  but  public  chaperones.  The  City 
Playground  Association  was  created  in  1904,  consisting  of  two 
women  and  three  men,  appointed  by  the  mayor.  A  playground 
was  opened  the  following  summer.  It  was  a  modest  piece  of 
ground  two  acres  in  extent,  costing  $11,000  for  the  land  and 
$6000  for  improvements.  It  was  equipped  in  the  usual  way 
indoors  and  out  for  the  recreation  of  children  of  different  ages. 
A  summer  house  was  built  that  the  mothers  might  sit  and  watch 
the  children.  A  club  house  was  added  in  the  form  of  a  bungalow 
provided  with  stage,  club  room  and  catering  facilities.  Boys 
and  girls  were  encouraged  to  cultivate  small  gardens  and  or- 
ganized into  a  park  department  to  protect  the  playground 
trees  and  plants.  Fifteen  years  is  the  dividing  age  between 
the  afternoon  and  evening  patrons.  Clubs  are  organized  for 
the  young  people  in  the  evening,  not  only  for  gymnastic  but  for 
dramatic  and  musical  purposes.  Saturday  evening  is  devoted 
to  a  community  entertainment.  A  bungalow  to  house  the 
directors  —  husband  and  wife  —  is  a  part  of  the  playground 
equipment. 


3o6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Thus  a  public  settlement  is  established  with  public  employees 
as  residents. 

The  other  playgrounds  have  been  planned  on  this  model. 
Each  includes  a  branch  of  the  public  library,  and  two  of  them 
are  headquarters  for  district  nursing.  The  nurses  not  only 
render  dispensary  service  but  visit  the  homes  and  schools. 
The  Municipal  Band  Commission  furnishes  music  in  the  recrea- 
tive centers,  as  well  as  in  the  city  parks.  In  addition  to  the 
five  playgrounds  the  Association  conducts  a  recreation  center 
(where  the  club  house  dominates  the  playground  and  athletic 
field),  a  natatorium,  fifteen  vacation  playgrounds  connected 
with  schoolhouses  and  a  summer  camp.  The  camp  is  located 
in  the  San  Gabriel  Canyon.^  Los  Angeles  is  trying  to  provide 
a  wide  range  of  recreative  facilities,  but  its  most  distinctive  con- 
tribution is  in  the  resident  directors  who  can  give  a  personal 
touch  to  the  pubhc  playgrounds  hardly  possible  in  the  case  of 
other  employees. 

While  the  pioneer  South  Park  Commission  in  Chicago  has 
reached  a  stage  of  arrested  development,  Los  Angeles  has 
become  a  progressive  experiment  station. 

The  Playground  Movement 

The  Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of  America  in 
1913  reported  342  cities  with  2400  playgrounds  in  charge  of 
6000  paid  supervisors.  Nearly  $6,000,000  was  spent  in  adminis- 
tering these  playgrounds  in  that  year,  and  twenty  cities  were 
planning  to  spend  over  $2,000,000  in  equipment  in  1914.  The 
playgrounds  are  becoming  training  schools  for  their  attendants 
after  the  manner  of  the  libraries.  Large  numbers  of  these 
communities  conduct  only  summer  playgrounds,  but  152  cities 
reported  over  600  centers  open  in  the  evening.  Seventy-one 
cities  kept  their  playgrounds  open  all  the  year,  employing  nearly 
600  workers.  One  hundred  and  eleven  cities  dispense  with 
private  philanthropy  altogether  and  115  conduct  municipal 
playgrounds  depending  in  part  on  private  funds. 

The  city  fathers  are  wisely  letting  a  little  child  lead  them. 

The  playground  movement  in  Massachusetts,  guided  by  its 
devoted  father,  Joseph  Lee  of  Boston,  had  attained  such  dimen- 

1  See  p.  311. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  307 

sions  in  1908  that  a  bill  passed  the  legislature  requiring  each 
town  in  the  state  to  hold  a  referendum  on  the  establishment 
of  playgrounds,  unless  it  had  already  been  equipped.  Half  of 
the  towns  of  over  10,000  population  had  already  made  provision 
and  only  two  of  the  others  voted  down  the  playground  referen- 
dum. The  Massachusetts  Civic  League  had  also  secured  legis- 
lation giving  the  cities  and  towns  elasticity  in  the  administra- 
tion of  their  playgrounds  —  under  the  school  committee,  the 
park  department  or  a  playground  commission.  In  191 2  the 
legislature  authorized  another  referendum,  this  time  covering 
towns  of  5000  inhabitants. 

Every  Massachusetts  town  has  free  books;  soon  directed 
play  will  be  as  free  as  directed  reading  in  the  land  of  the  blue- 
stocking and  the  high  brow. 

Public  Baths 

Public  baths  are  a  popular  means  of  recreation  and  an  indis- 
pensable protection  of  the  pubHc  health,  which  would  have 
been  appreciated  long  ago  had  it  not  been  for  the  American 
illusion  that  all  houses  are  provided  with  private  baths.  When 
the  Tenement  House  Committee  of  1894  in  New  York  reported 
that  out  of  255,000  inhabitants  of  the  tenements  which  it  in- 
spected only  306  had  access  to  bath-tubs  in  the  houses  in  which 
they  lived,  a  revelation  came  to  the  workers  among  the  poor 
and  to  the  authorities.     Doctor  Hartwell  writes : 

"  It  is  frequently  said  that  houses  in  American  cities  are  so  generally  fur- 
nished with  bathrooms  that  the  need  of  public  facilities  for  bathing  does  not 
exist  at  all  comparable  with  the  need  for  better  bathing  facilities  in  Euro- 
pean cities.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  in  1887  Dr.  Rohe,  of  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  in  an  address  delivered  before  the  American  Medical  Association 
in  Chicago,  showed  that,  contrary  to  the  popular  belief,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  American  cities  were  unprovided  with  adequate 
bathing  facilities.  His  statistics  concerning  eighteen  cities  having  no  free 
public  baths,  among  which  were  Baltimore,  Maryland ;  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts ;  Cincinnati,  Ohio  ;  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin  ;  Minneapolis,  Minne- 
sota ;  Portland,  Maine ;  and  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  showed  that  only  about 
25  per  cent  of  residences  were  supplied  with  bath-tubs.  He  concluded 
that  five-sixths  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  cities  have  no  facilities  for  bath- 
ing, except  such  as  are  offered  by  pail  and  sponge,  or  a  river,  lake  or  other 
body  of  water  which  may  be  easily  accessible,  but  in  v\'inter  even  such  sources 
of  cleanliness  are  cut  off." 


3o8  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Hibernating  is  instinctive  with  hedgehogs;  with  the  great 
unwashed  it  is  mandatory. 

The  first  all-t he-year  pubhc  bath  which  provided  swimming 
tank  and  showers  was  the  West  Side  Natatorium  in  Milwaukee, 
erected  in  1889,  at  a  cost  of  over  $21,000.  A  second  pubHc 
bathhouse,  the  South  Side  Natatorium,  was  built  five  years 
later  at  a  cost  of  approximately  $25,000.  Both  of  these  public 
baths  antedate  any  similar  institution  elsewhere  in  the  country, 
as  the  next  to  be  established  was  at  Brookline,  Massachusetts, 
1895.  The  swimming  provisions  at  Brookline  are  exceptionally 
good,  taking  rank  with  the  best  private  natatoriums  of  the 
country.  There  is  also  unusual  encouragement  given  to  school 
children  to  make  use  of  these  bathhouses,  not  only  by  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  fees,  but  also  by  the  offering  of  prizes  for  skill  in 
swimming.^ 

Baltimore  has  a  system  of  baths  and  laundries  which  are  very 
popular,  but  not  adequate  to  the  city's  needs.  The  Public 
Bath  Commission  has  supplemented  the  permanent  buildings 
by  portable  baths  in  the  congested  areas.  The  first  experiment 
was  with  a  tent  on  an  open  lot  near  the  docks.  This  has  been 
followed  by  a  frame  skeleton  covered  with  galvanized  iron. 
These  structures  cost  only  a  little  over  $600  to  build  and  only 
a  little  over  $30  weekly  to  maintain.  The  fees  average  $10  a 
week,  adults  being  charged  three  cents  for  soap  and  towel,  and 
children  one  cent,  except  on  certain  free  days.  They  have  had 
as  many  as  four  hundred  bathers  on  a  hot  day.  Nearly  as  many 
women  and  girls  have  used  the  baths  on  the  two  days  allotted  to 
them.  These  are  very  modest  provisions  compared  with  the 
Chicago  system,  but  they  bear  just  as  eloquent  witness  to  the 
fact  that  people  want  to  bathe  when  they  have  the  chance. 

"Flushing  the  streets  is  good,  but  flushing  off  the  youngsters 
themselves  is  still  better." 

Cleveland  has  erected  two  elaborate  modern  bathhouses  and 
dance  pavilions  in  Edgewater  and  Gordon  parks.  The  Edge- 
water  Park  bathhouse  is  over  three  hundred  feet  long,  fronting 
on  a  beach  that  is  longer  still.  At  one  end  of  the  pavilion  is  a 
restaurant  run  by  the  city,  at  the  other  end  are  tables  and  chairs 
for  picnic  parties.  The  municipal  band  plays  in  this  pavilion. 
There  are  313  dressing  rooms  for  women  and  343  for  men. 

'  Appendix  3. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  3^9 

Similar  provisions  are  made  at  Gordon  Park.  Al  both  bath- 
houses playground,  vacation  school  and  institutional  children 
are  admitted  free.  Other  patrons  are  required  to  pay  five  cents 
for  a  room,  five  cents  for  a  suit,  and  five  cents  for  a  towel.  These 
are  the  same  buildings  that  are  used  for  Cleveland's  three-cent 
dances. 

Guthrie,  Oklahoma,  puts  itself  in  the  class  with  European 
watering  places  by  a  substantial  reenforced  concrete  and  marble 
structure  containing  a  swimming  pool,  where  the  inhabitants 
of  that  city  may  bathe  in  salt  water.  Monroe,  Louisiana,  has  a 
recreation  center  that  includes  two  salt  water  swimming  pools 
fed  constantly  from  a  warm  water  well.  The  pools  are  open  to 
the  sunlight  and  are  used  all  the  year  without  charge  to  patrons. 

Boston  Public  Baths 

While  Brookline  opened  the  first  public  natatorium  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  Boston  has  made  the  most  elaborate  provisions 
for  summer  bathing.  There  were  ten  all-year  baths,  with  a 
million  patrons,  and  seventeen  summer  bathing  places  in  Boston, 
with  a  patronage  of  nearly  three  milHon  in  1914.  These  include 
floating  baths  in  the  river  and  sea  bathing  beaches.  Lynn 
owns  a  beach  that  is  supplementary  to  the  Boston  Metropohtan 
System,  coming  within  its  geographical  radius.  The  Metro- 
pohtan Commission  conducts  Revere  Beach,  Nahant  Beach, 
and  Nantasket  Beach,  three  of  the  best  and  most  popular 
bathing  beaches  in  the  country.  The  bathhouses  make  a  charge 
of  5  to  25  cents  for  the  use  of  their  facihties  and  are  overtaxed  on 
hot  summer  days.  Each  beach  is  several  miles  in  length  and 
on  occasion  the  patronage  totals  over  100,000. 

The  beaches  of  Seattle  and  New  York  are  the  only  pubHc 
enterprises  quite  comparable  to  these  public  baths,  but  Boston 
also  conducts  a  unique  bath  at  L  Street.  This  remains  probably 
the  one  public  bath  in  America  where  men  are  not  required  to 
wear  bathing  suits.  There  are  now  three  separate  baths :  one 
for  men,  one  for  boys,  and  the  other  for  women  and  girls.  The 
patronage  is  often  5000  a  day  in  summer,  and  has  risen  to  22,000, 
but  the  bathing  continues  all  winter.  The  hardy  athletes  who 
brave  all  kinds  of  weather  are  called  "brownies."  A  man  must 
be  a  daily  patron  for  seven  months  to  qualify  for  this  distinction. 


310  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

The  "brownies"  wade  through  the  snow  and  break  through  the 
ice  for  their  daily  bath.^ 

It  takes  as  much  audacity  to  break  the  ice  in  Boston  Harbor 
as  in  the  Back  Bay. 

New  York  Public  Baths 

New  York  State  has  taken  the  most  advanced  step  by  passing 
a  law  which  makes  the  provision  of  public  baths  obligatory  upon 
the  cities.     The  statute  reads : 

"Section  i.  All  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class  shall  establish  and 
maintain  such  number  of  public  baths  as  the  local  board  of  health  may 
determine  to  be  necessary ;  each  bath  shall  be  kept  open  not  less  than  four- 
teen hours  each  day,  and  both  cold  and  hot  water  shall  be  provided.  The 
erection  of  river  or  ocean  baths  will  not  be  deemed  in  compliance  with  the 
requirements  of  this  section.  Any  city,  village,  or  town  having  less  than 
fifty  thousand  inhabitants  may  establish  and  maintain  free  public  baths,  and 
any  city,  village,  or  town  may  loan  its  credit  or  may  appropriate  of  its  funds 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  free  public  baths." 

The  first  city  in  New  York  State  to  open  a  public  bathhouse 
was  Yonkers,  in  1894.  This  was  followed  by  Buffalo.  Most  of 
the  bathhouses  built  under  the  New  York  State  law  contain 
only  shower  baths.  New  York  City  has  thirteen  public  bath- 
houses, containing  1377  showers  and  tubs,  and  four  pools,  pat- 
ronized by  over  six  million  people  in  19 14.  The  city  spends 
over  one-third  of  a  million  a  year  in  operating  these  bathhouses, 
which  cost  $1,700,000.  New  York's  natatoriums  are  provided 
with  separate  showers  and  tubs  for  the  two  sexes,  but  the  pools 
are  used  alternately.  The  water  is  changed  three  times  a  week, 
is  filtered,  and  is  kept  remarkably  clean  considering  the  patron- 
age. The  buildings  are  also  well  ventilated.  New  York  pro- 
vides floating  baths  in  its  rivers,  used  by  over  a  million  bathers 
in  1 914,  but  these  ought  to  be  prohibited  by  law  as  the  water  is 
unfit  for  swimming.  The  school  shower  baths  were  used  by 
nearly  half  a  million  boys  and  180,000  girls  in  1914.  The  new 
municipal  bathhouse  at  Coney  Island  contains  850  rooms,  each 
with  eight  lockers.     Those  on  the  first  floor  are  divided  between 

»  Several  Massachusetts  cities  own  public  beaches,  but  not  public  bathhouses. 
New  York  has  built  an  enormous  public  bathhouse  at  Coney  Island  and  Seattle  a 
bathhouse  on  its  bathing  beach  at  Alki  Point. 


Charles  River  Reservation. 
Boston  Metropolitan  Park  System. 


Courlcsy  of  Ihc  Metropolitan  Park  Commission,  Boston. 

Revere  Beach  Reserv.ation. 
Boston  Metropolitan  Parli  System. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  31 1 

men  and  women ;  those  on  the  second  floor  are  exclusively  for 
women ;  the  third  floor  is  for  men.  The  building  is  supposed 
to  accommodate  21,000  people  in  twenty-four  hours.  It  is  the 
intention  to  keep  it  open  all  the  time,  in  contrast  with  Boston's 
limited  bathing  hours  at  Revere  and  Nantasket  beaches. 

All-night  bathing  may  be  of  both  hygienic  and  ethical  advan- 
tage to  Coney  Island. 

Invading  the  Country 

Boston,  Chicago  and  other  cities  have  organizations  of  pedes- 
trians who  range  far  beyond  the  parks  into  the  environs  of  the 
cities.  Some  years  ago  a  boys'  camp  was  conducted  by  the 
municipal  authorities  of  Boston.  It  failed  because  of  an  un- 
propitious  site  on  a  treeless  island  in  the  harbor.  Philadelphia, 
through  its  school  authorities,  has  experimented  in  a  camp  for 
fifty  girls.  The  most  ambitious  of  these  projects  is  the  municipal 
vacation  camp  of  Los  Angeles.  The  playground  department 
manages  a  camp  in  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains,  seventy-five 
miles  from  Los  Angeles.  In  191 1  they  began  on  the  seashore 
this  experiment  that  is  now  located  on  twenty-three  acres  of 
government  forest  reserve  leased  for  $10  a  year.  At  a  height 
of  5000  feet  in  a  pine  grove  is  a  tent  colony,  inhabited  by  boys 
and  men  in  July,  girls  and  women  in  August.  Transportation 
and  board  for  two  weeks  cost  $7.50.  Auto  trucks  with  seats 
and  awnings  are  the  official  vehicles  for  the  seventy-five  mile 
journey.  Denver's  Rocky  Mountain  parks,  nineteen  and 
twenty-five  miles  respectively  from  the  city,  are  the  goals  for 
hikes  taken  by  playground  youth  under  the  supervision  of  a 
playground  director.  A  shelter  has  been  built  by  the  city  on 
Lookout  Mountain,  but  the  campers  spend  the  night  in  the 
open. 

It  is  no  longer  necessary  in  our  best  cities  for  a  boy  to  be  com- 
mitted to  a  Parental  School  to  get  vocational  training.  Why 
should  a  girl  have  to  become  tuberculous  before  she  can  go  to  a 
municipal  camp? 

Municipal  Dancing 

The  extreme  Hbertarian  and  "Billy"  Sunday  both  have  their 
guns  spiked  by  the  municipal  dance.     The  ultra-evangelical 


312  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

t>pe  objects  to  all  dancing.  The  "personal  liberty"  devotee 
objects  to  any  regulation  of  conduct.  Both  have  a  false  per- 
spective of  the  need  and  danger  of  the  dance.  Under  ideal  in- 
dustrial, social,  and  housing  conditions  full  liberty  might  be 
granted  individuals.  But  the  commercial  dance  has  proved  an 
unmistakable  menace  to  youth.  The  dance  is  not  only  one  of 
the  oldest  forms  of  recreation :  it  is  peculiarly  desirable  in  the 
monotony  of  sedentary  and  congested  city  life.  The  unconcern 
of  the  municipality  for  the  amusement  of  its  citizens  has  per- 
mitted the  growth  of  the  public  dance  hall  which  has  been  sup- 
ported by  the  satisfaction  of  thirst  resulting  not  from  the  joy 
but  from  the  heat  of  the  dance.  Dance  halls  have  been  usually 
either  connected  with  saloons  or  made  profitable  by  drink. 
There  have  been  some  admirable  commercial  dance  halls  in 
cities  and  at  urban  resorts.  There  have  been  also  many  dance 
halls  that  were  mere  recruiting  stations  for  vice.  The  municipal- 
ity has  begun  to  meet  the  issue  by  (i)  supervision  of  halls, 
dances,  drink  and  patrons,  (2)  public  chaperonage,  (3)  public 
dances. 

There  may  be  danger  in  censorship  whether  of  press,  theater  or 
dance  hall,  but  censorship  admits  social  responsibility.  It  can  no 
longer  remain  negative. 

Municipalities  have  tried  to  regulate  commercial  dancing  by 
separating  it  from  intoxicating  beverages,  by  insuring  sanitary 
and  fire-protected  halls,  by  prohibiting  objectionable  music 
and  dancing.  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  through  its  Public 
Welfare  Department,  has  enforced  reasonable  restrictions  with 
unquestionable  benefits.^  The  city  of  Cincinnati,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Women's  Civic  Commission,  has  given  dances 
in  the  Music  Hall  on  Saturday  nights.  A  children's  dance  has 
also  been  conducted  Saturday  afternoons.  Twenty-two  dances, 
attended  by  14,000  people  at  an  admission  fee  of  fifteen  cents, 
brought  a  slight  profit  in  1913.  Soft  drinks  and  ice  cream  were 
served  by  a  concessionaire.     No  return  checks  were  given. 

The  first  municipal  dance  seems  to  have  been  held  in  Mil- 
waukee under  Mayor  Seidel's  administration.  Twenty-five 
cents  a  couple  was  charged;  there  was  public  chaperonage; 
the  dances  grew  steadily  in  popularity.  On  Mayor  Seidel's 
defeat  for  reelection  in   191 2,  the  reactionary   administration 

'  See  p.  167. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  313 

discontinued  the  municipal  dances.  The  chief  success  in 
municipal  dances  has  been  enjoyed  by  Cleveland.  Mayor  and 
Mrs.  Newton  Baker  led  the  grand  march  at  the  first  municipal 
dance  in  August,  191 2,  at  the  Edgewater  Pavilion.  There  had 
been  a  peculiar  need  for  municipal  dances  as  thirty- two  private 
dance  halls  had  been  closed  because  the  buildings  or  conditions 
made  them  undesirable.  The  schoolboard  halted  as  usual 
about  the  use  of  the  school  auditoriums.  Mayor  Baker  met  the 
emergency  by  improvising  halls  in  two  park  pavilions.  Ac- 
cording to  Cleveland's  precedent  in  street  railway  fares  and 
electric  lighting  rates  the  charges  were  set  at  three  cents  a  dance 
and  three  cents  for  wardrobe  privilege.  Thus  a  five-minute 
dance  was  given  for  three  cents  in  competition  with  the  com- 
mercial rate  of  five  cents  for  three  minutes.  The  first  dance 
brought  in  nearly  $350  from  11,630  dance  tickets.  Afternoon 
sessions  have  been  held  for  children.  Minors  under  eighteen, 
unless  with  responsible  chaperons,  are  excluded  after  9  p.m. 
The  orchestras  are  excellent ;  the  police  supervision  greater 
even  than  at  private  dances;  light  refreshments  are  served 
under  a  concession.  The  dances  are  unfortunately  limited  to 
the  summer.     In  1914  the  profits  were  $15,000. 

While  the  school  board  allowed  itself  to  be  enmeshed  in  legal 
technicalities,  the  mayor  met  the  emergency  as  a  statesman 
would. 

Chicago  has  followed  Cleveland's  lead.  The  need  was  very 
great,  as  rigorous  restrictions  have  been  imposed  upon  dance 
halls  and  restaurants  where  liquor  is  sold.  The  newspapers  of 
Chicago  printed  on  December  2,  1914,  an  invitation  that  read: 

The  City  of  Chicago  invites  you  to  attend  the  first  municipal  dance  to 
be  given  under  the  auspices  of  the  Department  of  Public  Welfare  at  Dream- 
land Hall,  West  Van  Buren  and  South  Paulina  streets,  to-night  at  8  o'clock. 
Admission,  15  cents. 

Carter  H.  Harrison,  Mayor. 

Mayor  and  Mrs.  Harrison  led  the  grand  march.  Volunteer 
chaperons  assisted  Mrs.  Lenora  Z.  Meder,  Commissioner  of 
Public  Welfare,  and  Philip  W.  Trout,  Director  of  Dances  of 
the  Commission.  Over  5000  people  danced  the  old  dances. 
The  first  ball  was  restricted  to  the  old  dances,  but  the  director 
set  to  work  to  train  people  so  that  the  new  dances  could  be 


314 


AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


included  in  subsequent  municipal  balls.  Chicago  has  also  made 
abundant  provision  for  free  dancing  by  recognized  clubs  at  its 
playground  field  houses  and  public  schoolhouses. 

Boston's  Park  and  Recreation  Department  has  conducted 
municipal  dances  in  the  city's  gymnasiums.  The  Board  of 
Supervisors  of  San  Francisco  have  not  only  used  the  new  Civic 
Auditorium  for  paid  dances,  but  inaugurated  free  street  dancing. 
The  municipal  band  performs  from  8  to  ii  o'clock  on  certain 
evenings  on  well  paved  streets  under  police  supervision. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  municipal  dance  does  violence 
to  class  consciousness. 

Municipal  Music 

The  unmusical  American  is  awakening.  Symphony  orches- 
tras and  grand  opera  are  still  the  exclusive  possession  of  a  limited 
public  in  the  big  cities.  Church  music  is  still  generally  little 
better  than  rag  time ;  there  is  not  yet  a  national  anthem  worthy 
of  the  name,  and  American  audiences  vicariously  stand  when 
the  Star-Spangled  Banner  is  played  or  applaud  Dixie  because 
they  are  accustomed  to  express  patriotism  and  music  by  proxy. 
Nevertheless,  high  school  orchestras  and  choruses  multiply,^ 
band  concerts  are  nearly  universal  in  the  city  parks  in  summer, 
organ  recitals  are  given  free  in  favored  cities,  and  cheap  music 
of  a  high  order  is  becoming  part  of  the  winter  program. 

American  aspirations  are  becoming  articulate. 

Atlanta,  Pittsburgh  and  Portland,  Maine,  are  not  alone  in 
their  public  organs  and  organists,  but  they  are  notable.  Con- 
certs are  given  daily  in  summer  in  the  new  Portland  auditorium. 
The  organist,  Will  C.  Macfarlane,  employed  by  the  city,  plays 
the  public  organ  given  in  honor  of  the  composer,  Hermann 
Kotzschmar,  by  his  namesake,  Cyrus  H.  K.  Curtis.  Mr. 
Macfarlane  gives  his  time  exclusively  to  this  function  and 
musical  composition.  On  Sundays  in  winter  the  Music  Com- 
mission also  plans  programs,  including  congregational  singing 
and  addresses.  Pittsburgh  is  the  pioneer  city  to  provide  public 
organ  recitals.  Mr.  Carnegie  has  equipped  both  Pittsburgh 
and  North  Pittsburgh  (the  old  city  of  Allegheny)  with  municipal 
organs.     In   February,  1914,  the  one-thousandth  semi-weekly 

>  See  pp.  183,  184. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  315 

recital  was  given  in  North  Pittsburgh  after  twenty-four  years  of 
public  education.  The  organist,  Caspar  P.  Koch,  like  his 
colleague,  Charles  Heinroth  of  the  Pittsburgh  Carnegie  Institute, 
is  both  a  musician  and  an  educator. 

Pittsburgh  sounds  better  than  it  looks. 

Boston  supplements  the  privately  sustained  symphony  or- 
chestra by  worthy  orchestral  concerts  supported  by  the  munici- 
pality. With  an  appropriation  of  less  than  $20,000  band 
concerts  are  given  Saturday  and  Sunday  afternoons  in  summer 
and  orchestral  concerts,  organ  recitals,  and  music  lectures  are 
offered  in  the  winter.  One  hundred  and  twenty-eight  concerts 
invited  such  an  attendance  that  the  cost  to  the  city  per  auditor 
was  less  than  five  cents.  In  its  endeavor  to  provide  free  music 
Boston's  municipal  orchestra  does  not  serve  the  people  as  well  as 
Cleveland's.  The  best  music  is  given  in  Cleveland  by  a  munic- 
ipal symphony  orchestra  at  Keith's  Hippodrome.  The  ad- 
mission is  10,  15  and  25  cents.  The  city  appropriated  $16,500 
in  1914  and  the  deficit  was  met  by  private  subscription. 

Denver  has  a  municipal  orchestra  that  gives  high  class  con- 
certs in  the  Municipal  Auditorium  on  Sunday  evenings  in  the 
winter.  Denver's  chief  summer  music  is  performed  on  an  island 
in  its  City  Park.  The  best  bands  in  America  have  appeared 
there.  The  municipal  band  now  plays  daily  in  summer  at  this 
park,  weekly  in  two  others,  and  gives  twenty  Sunday  afternoon 
concerts  in  the  Municipal  Auditorium.  The  expense  is  divided 
between  the  city  and  the  street  railway  company.  The  Houston 
Municipal  Band  gives  free  concerts  on  summer  evenings  at  the 
small  parks  and  school  grounds.  On  Sunday  the  concerts  are 
given  in  the  Sam  Houston  Park,  the  city's  largest  park.  It  is 
probably  not  surprising  that  the  Sunday  concerts  in  the  Mil- 
waukee municipal  auditorium  should  have  been  improved  by 
submitting  the  choice  of  selections  to  a  referendum  of  the  people. 
A  symphony  orchestra  of  fifty  pieces  is  supported  by  fees  of  10 
and  25  cents,  the  deficit  being  made  up  by  the  city. 

The  music  stands  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco,  and 
the  Common,  Boston,  are  monumental  witnesses  to  popular 
music. 

New  York  furnishes  more  municipal  music  than  any  other 
city,  but  the  popular  demand  far  exceeds  the  appreciation  of 
the  city  fathers.     The  people  have  responded  to  the  music  of 


3l6  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

seventy  bands  playing  in  the  parks  and  on  the  recreation  piers, 
the  appropriation  being  $100,000.  A  daily  concert  is  given  on 
the  Mall  in  Central  Park  during  the  summer  months.  The 
slashing  of  the  budget  has  eliminated  the  recreation  pier  concerts, 
but  the  popular  demand  is  unabated. 

The  municipalities  are  learning  that  the  people  want  good 
music,  that  it  cannot  be  supplied  commercially,  but  that  the 
people  are  glad  to  pay  what  they  can.  The  city's  function  is 
to  underwrite  the  cost  of  the  best  music. 

Municipal  Auditoriums 

The  sepulchral  character  of  most  churches  and  public  buildings 
during  the  larger  part  of  the  twenty-four  hour  day  is  being 
transformed  by  new  spiritual,  intellectual  and  social  interests. 
Many  communities  still  own  town  halls,  convention  halls,  high 
school  and  library  auditoriums,  that  are  of  little  more  use  than 
the  parlor  of  a  farmhouse.  The  unawakened  public  servants  of 
a  somnolent  public  hold  these  sacred  spaces  in  reserve  for  town 
christenings  or  funerals.  The  joy  of  the  city  is  penetrating  these 
gloomy  places  and  throwing  light  into  their  shadows.  It  is  a 
common  practice  in  some  cities  to  encourage  the  public  use  of 
the  high  school  or  library  auditorium.^ 

New  England  communities  usually  have  a  town  hall  that  is 
available  for  all  kinds  of  public  meetings  at  a  modest  rental. 
Boston  has  a  number  of  imposing  ward  halls.  For  strictly  mu- 
nicipal functions  it  is  generally  free.  In  some  places  its  use  as  a 
theater  is  promoted  by  the  officials.  A  number  of  New  England 
towns  are  still  governed  by  the  town  meeting  of  citizens,  gather- 
ing in  the  town  hall  at  the  annual  and  adjourned  meetings,  and 
voicing  the  sentiments  of  the  voters,  idve  voce.  The  gallery  is 
then  reserved  for  non- voters  —  women  and  children.  Winches- 
ter, Massachusetts,  in  addition  to  many  semi-public  uses  of  its 
Town  Hall,  holds  a  "June  Breakfast"  there.  On  the  first 
Saturday  morning  in  June  the  Visiting  Nurses'  Association  is 
responsible  for  serving  breakfast  from  six  o'clock  on  to  all 
comers  at  twenty-five  cents  a  head.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  population  —  men,  women  and  children  —  join  in  this 
community  breakfast. 

>  See  pp.  246,  247,  253.     Also  Chapter  XIV. 


5  ^  <  o 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  317 

Some  day  the  breaking  of  bread  together  may  be  the  holy 
communion  of  holy  communists. 

Among  the  many  auditoriums  built  by  cities  in  recent  years, 
those  at  Denver,  San  Francisco,  and  Houston  are  notable. 
Denver's  Auditorium,  like  St.  Paul's,  is  elastic.  By  the 
movement  of  the  boxes  and  proscenium  arch,  the  room  may  be 
adapted  to  audiences  of  from  3500  to  twelve  thousand.  This  is 
a  great  advantage  not  enjoyed,  for  example,  by  San  Francisco 
and  Wichita,  where  ordinary  audiences  are  lost  in  the  mammoth 
auditorium  and  the  acoustics  are  abominable.  Denver's 
Auditorium  is  regularly  used  for  Sunday  municipal  concerts. 
It  was  leased  for  a  time  to  a  theatrical  manager  who  gave  daily 
performances  at  modest  charges. 

San  Francisco  has  received  a  beautiful  auditorium  as  a  per- 
quisite of  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition.  It  is  handsomely 
and  appropriately  located,  facing  the  Civic  Center,  companion 
to  the  majestic  City  Hall.  There  are  smaller  halls  in  addition  to 
the  huge  hall,  committee  rooms,  and  offices  in  the  building. 
Seventeen  entrances  have  been  provided  in  the  front  of  the 
building  and  four  on  each  side.  The  seating  capacity  of  the 
floor  of  the  main  auditorium  is  five  thousand  and  of  the  galleries 
six  thousand.  A  building  costing  nearly  two  million  dollars 
is  thus  embellishing  the  city.  The  dispute  between  the  large 
subscribers  and  the  little  subscribers  to  the  Municipal  Opera 
House  is  settled  by  substitution,  but  only  Wagnerian  voices 
can  be  heard  in  the  Auditorium. 

Most  large  municipal  auditoriums  are  white  elephants  unless 
the  community  can  sing  as  well  as  pay  the  piper. 

Houston  has  a  large  auditorium  with  better  acoustics  than 
its  rivals.  It  is  regularly  used  as  a  social-center  meeting  place. 
Sunday  afternoon  concerts  and  lectures  are  given  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  municipal  officer,  who  happens  to  be  a  local  minister. 
Having  persuaded  his  reluctant  fellow-ministers  to  yield  the  mo- 
nopoly of  the  good  uses  of  Sunday,  he  has  built  up  the  chief 
municipal  forum  in  the  United  States.  In  addition  to  special 
concerts,  the  municipal  orchestra  plays  before  the  lectures.  The 
people  also  sing. 

Municipal  and  private  auditoriums  will  be  better  built  when 
the  people  know  what  to  do  with  them. 


3l8  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Municipal  Theaters 

Many  municipalities  rent  their  town  halls  or  opera  houses  to 
theatrical  managers  or  companies  without  making  any  attempt 
to  improve  on  the  commercial  methods.  The  most  widespread 
effort  to  approach  the  municipal  theater  has  come  with  the 
endeavor  to  improve  the  character  of  the  motion-picture  theater. 
Biggs,  California,  is  one  of  a  number  of  communities  running  a 
motion-picture  theater  for  educational  purposes.  Passaic, 
New  Jersey,  under  the  auspices  of  the  commission  government, 
has  undertaken  Sunday  "movies."  The  first  of  the  free  exhibi- 
tions is  said  to  have  drawn  six  thousand  people.  St.  Louis 
in  the  summer  of  1914  employed  a  portable  exhibition  booth, 
carrying  lantern,  films  and  curtain,  to  give  entertainments  in 
the  parks  and  playgrounds.  Fourteen  such  centers  enjoyed 
fifty-six  fortnightly  entertainments.  Some  educational  films, 
such  as  "Safety  First,"  "The  Fly,"  "Clean  Milk,"  and  "Child 
Labor,"  could  be  included  within  their  $2000  appropriation. 

The  municipal  "movie"  at  least  has  a  curtain  in  common  with 
the  municipal  theater  abroad. 

Several  American  cities  purport  to  have  genuine  municipal 
theaters  because  dramatic  entertainments  are  given  in  a  munici- 
pal building.  The  private  organization  purveying  high  class 
drama  in  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  may  rightly  be  said  to  con- 
duct a  civic  theater.  Concordia,  Kansas,  is  one  of  several  cities 
claiming  to  have  the  first  municipal  theater.  Hennessey, 
Oklahoma,  owns  a  municipal  theater ;  the  attractions  are  booked 
by  a  member  of  the  city  council.  Richland  Center,  Wisconsin, 
had  to  promote  legislation  for  the  state  in  order  to  operate  its 
new  municipal  theater  without  leasing  it  to  a  private  theatrical 
company.  Red  Wing,  Minnesota,  enjoys  a  bequest  of  $80,000 
from  Theodore  B.  Sheldon,  given  to  found  a  municipal  theater  not 
to  be  used  for  private  or  public  gain.  This  city  of  10,000  inhabit- 
ants does  not  support  its  own  company,  but  a  citizens'  com- 
mittee does  the  booking.  This  Sheldon  Auditorium  Board  of 
five  members,  nominated  by  the  council  and  appointed  by  the 
mayor,  holds  office  for  five  years.  In  spite  of  their  selection  of 
superior  attractions,  the  enterprise  has  paid  interest  on  the  in- 
vestment. Like  many  a  commercial  playhouse  it  has  tem- 
porarily succumbed  to  the  motion-picture  craze. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  319 

Red  Wing  doubtless  had  the  first  municipally  administered 
American  theater,  established  in  1904. 

The  Northampton  Players  in  the  Massachusetts  city  of  that 
name  constitute  the  first  municipal  company.  In  1892  Edward 
H.  R.  Lyman,  a  Northampton  merchant,  impressed  by  the 
educational  value  of  municipal  theaters  abroad,  built  for  his  town 
a  theater,  secured  the  legislation  necessary  to  operate  it  and  en- 
dowed it  for  three  years.  The  deed  of  gift  provided  that  the  build- 
ing should  be  "devoted  and  used  wholly  and  exclusively  for  the 
delivery  of  lectures,  the  production  of  concerts  and  operas,  and 
the  representation  and  delineation  of  the  drama  of  the  better 
character."  A  committee  of  five  self -perpetuating  trustees  was 
to  administer  the  gift.  This  board  must  include  the  mayor 
of  Northampton  and  the  president  of  Smith  College.  For 
twenty  years  the  theater  had  been  successful  in  following  the 
commercial  methods.  The  deterioration  of  the  stage  under  the 
incubus  of  New  York  management  led  to  the  consideration  of 
the  desirability  of  operation,  as  well  as  ownership,  of  this  munici- 
pal plant.  In  March,  1903,  plays  were  given  on  half  the  even- 
ings of  the  month.  In  March,  191 2,  three  plays  and  two  days  of 
Dante's  Inferno  (motion  pictures)  represented  the  decline  of 
the  commercial  possibilities  of  the  Academy  of  Music. 

Northampton's  experience  leaves  no  doubt  of  the  blight  of 
New  York  on  the  American  theater. 

Miss  Medella  L.  Peck,  head  of  the  Department  of  Spoken 
English  in  Smith  College,  urged  the  organization  of  a  permanent 
stock  company.  Mr,  Frank  Lyman,  son  of  the  owner  of  the 
theater,  underwrote  the  venture  to  the  amount  of  $6000  a  year. 
The  first  year  $5000  of  this  was  needed,  the  second  about  half, 
the  third  the  municipal  council  assumed  the  responsibility. 
Mr.  Bertram  Harrison  was  made  manager.  Miss  Jessie  Bon- 
stelle  gathered  the  company  and  they  have  had  three  successful 
seasons  —  October  through  April,  six  evening  performances 
and  two  matinees  weekly.  The  fear  that  the  high-brow  element 
would  predominate  has  been  reUeved  by  a  sufficient  sprinkUng  of 
farces  and  melodramas  in  the  repertoire.  The  fear  that  popular- 
ity would  preclude  the  use  of  the  best  plays  is  answered  by 
the  inclusion  of  Shaw,  Maeterlinck,  Barrie,  Pinero,  Oscar  Wilde, 
Zangwill,  Mrs.  Trask  and  many  other  notables.  Traveling 
companies  are  still  enjoyed  by  letting  the  stock  company  lie 
off  a  night  or  visit  neighboring  communities. 


320 


AMERICAN  MUNICIP.\L  PROGRESS 


The  best  is  good  enough  for  the  pubUc. 

The  Northampton  theater  program  contains  advertisements, 
the  profits  from  which  swell  the  theater  funds.  It  includes  a 
page  asking  auditors  to  express  their  preference  of  plays  to  come 
and  sums  up  these  preferences  on  another  page,  indicating  the 
possibility  of  meeting  the  pubhc  demand.  The  Citizens'  Com- 
mittee, appointed  by  the  Northampton  Board  of  Trade,  appeals 
on  another  page  for  pledges  for  the  coming  year.  There  is 
also  given  a  trolley  schedule  to  neighboring  towns,  for  this  com- 
munity of  20,000  is  the  center  of  an  urban  district  three  times 
as  large.  In  spite  of  the  response  from  "  the  very  best  famihes," 
the  artisans,  the  students  and  faculty  of  Smith  College,  and  the 
people  from  neighboring  communities,  it  was  only  in  the  third 
season  that  Miss  Bonstelle  was  able  to  consummate  her  ideal 
of  free  Sunday  concerts. 

The  American  Municipal  Theater  is  the  antidote  to  commer- 
cialism and  dilettantism. 

Sunday  Recreation 

A  blight  is  cast  upon  Sunday  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
by  antiquated  blue  laws.  Cincinnati  and  San  Francisco  have  an 
open  Sunday  that  is  almost  as  immoral  in  its  influence  as  a 
Pittsburgh  or  Philadelphia  blue  Sunday.  There  is  very  httle 
rational  treatment  of  the  day  of  rest.  In  the  theologically 
backward  South  many  cities  have  theatrical  entertainments 
and  baseball  games.  In  North  Dakota  the  prejudices  of  com- 
munities that  have  only  recently  lost  their  free  frontier  character 
forbid  Sunday  amusements.  Colorado  Springs  voted  adversely 
on  Simday  movies  in  the  spring  of  191 5.  Massachusetts  cities 
are  just  evenly  divided  on  Sunday  performances.  Boston's 
playgrounds,  like  Jersey  City's,  are  shut  tight  on  Sunday, 
while  that  is  Chicago's  best  day. 

Boston  eases  the  Puritan  conscience  by  licensing  Sunday 
"shows." 

The  conscience  has  tightened  recently  and  the  Sunday 
tax  has  been  raised  from  five  to  ten  dollars  a  performance.  An 
increase  of  $23,000  a  year  in  the  income  of  the  city  treasury 
promises  such  reassurance  to  the  morals  of  the  city  that  religious 
organizations  have  been  asked  if  they  will  tolerate  the  theaters 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  321 

opening  at  6  instead  of  7  Sunday  evenings.  Other  concessions 
to  the  scruples  of  the  American  people  are  the  prohibition  of 
legitimate  plays  or  any  involving  costumes  and  scenery  (because, 
of  course,  they  could  not  be  "Sunday  Concerts")  and  the  re- 
quirement of  longer  skirts  on  the  women  on  Sundays  than  week- 
days. Under  these  circumstances  twenty-two  out  of  forty-six 
Boston  motion-picture  houses  voluntarily  remain  closed  with 
the  wicked  theaters.  Connecticut  has  recently  emancipated 
its  cities  by  defining  permissible  Sunday  occupations.  Even 
with  undue  restrictions  on  individual  liberty,  the  joy  of  the  city 
will  be  enhanced  by  wiping  out  the  hypocrisy  of  old  blue  laws 
and  substituting  a  modern  compromise.  Sunday  amusements 
multiply. 
"The  sabbath  was  made  for  man,  not  man  for  the  sabbath." 

Festivals 

The  joy  of  the  city  has  been  expressed  for  years  by  local  festivi- 
ties, some  of  which  have  attained  national  fame  or  notoriety. 
New  York's  New  Year's  Eve  and  election  night  debauches  have 
been  notorious  but  spurious  vents  for  joy.  Philadelphia's 
New  Year's  Day  hilarity  has  been  joyous  in  a  juvenile  sense. 
New  Orleans'  Mardi  Gras  may  invite  excess,  but  it  enjoys  a 
distinction  to  which  its  imitators  vainly  aspire.  Cincinnati's 
biennial  music  festivals  are  of  a  still  higher  order  if  not  so  gay. 
Pasadena's  Rose  Carnival  has  a  national  reputation.  Many 
cities  have  organized  worthy  celebrations  of  their  centennial  or 
other  significant  anniversary.  The  most  important  of  these 
ventures,  from  the  standpoint  of  a  healthy  municipal  life,  are 
the  annual  celebrations  like  the  Fourth  of  July  or  Christmas. 

The  Safe  and  Sane  Fourth  of  July  was  inaugurated  in  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts,  in  1903.  Five  years  later  only  three  other 
cities  had  followed.  Ten  years  later  nearly  four  hundred  cities 
were  in  Hne.  In  1908  there  were  reported  5623  serious  accidents 
in  the  United  States  resulting  from  the  old-fashioned  Fourth. 
In  1913  only  1163  such  accidents  were  recorded.  The  saving 
of  life  and  the  protection  of  body  were  not  the  only  negative 
gains.  The  reduction  in  the  number  of  fires  was  significant 
enough  for  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  to  engage  in 
propaganda  for  a  Safe  and  Sane  Fourth.     Positive  gains  have 


322 


AAIERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 


been  as  inspiring  if  not  so  momentous.  Public,  in  lieu  of  private, 
fireworks  promote  community  spirit,  as  well  as  personal  longevity. 
Games,  sports,  contests,  music,  pageants,  even  speeches,  take  on 
a  gala  character  when  the  community  concentrates  on  the  Com- 
mon or  in  the  Park  instead  of  dissipating  in  the  private  yards. 

It  has  been  the  practice  in  Rochester  to  celebrate  Independ- 
ence Day  by  a  banquet  to  the  citizens  who  have  come  of 
age  since  the  last  "Fourth."  ^ 

The  Community  Christmas  is  another  great  event  of  the 
year  that  is  being  saved  from  banality  by  not  confining  it  to 
the  home.  The  Spug  ^  movement  takes  away  the  perfunctory 
character  of  Christmas  but  leaves  presents  as  the  chief  symbols. 
The  custom  has  never  died  out  in  Boston  and  other  New  England 
communities  of  Christmas  waits  and  carols  and  the  Hghting 
of  candles  in  the  windows.  In  some  cities  now  the  church 
choirs  sing  in  neighborhoods  and  then  unite  at  the  Community 
Christmas  Tree.  This  is  one  of  those  instances  of  spontaneous 
community  combustion  that  testify  to  the  joy  of  the  new  era. 
New  York  claims  to  have  had  the  first  Community  Christmas 
Tree,  inspired  by  that  Danish  Pied  Piper  of  the  East  Side, 
JacolD  Riis.  The  transformed  or  rescued  Christmas  now 
ranges  from  the  snow-bedecked  trees  of  Boston  and  New  York 
to  the  sun-warmed  trees  of  Riverside,  California,  and  Balboa 
in  the  Canal  Zone.  A  typical  community  program  is  that  of 
the  town  of  Weymouth,  Massachusetts.  "The  Spirit  of  Christ- 
mas" was  the  title  of  a  pageant  arranged  and  directed  by  a 
local  woman.  The  pageant  was  presented  by  many  per- 
formers, grouped  to  represent  agents  and  agencies  of  Peace, 
Prosperity,  Pleasure  and  Plenty.  Music  and  dancing  were 
included  and  the  entire  town  gathered  on  the  Common. 

The  Community  Tree  bears  different  fruit  from  the  family 
tree. 

Cleveland,  as  usual,  gave  its  own  particular  interpretation  to 
this  movement.  The  charitable  organizations  that  are  in  the 
habit  of  serving  the  poor  at  Christmastime  pooled  their  interests. 
A  Community  Christmas  Committee,  appointed  by  Mayor 
Baker,  made  a  united  appeal  for  funds  to  promote  Christmas 
cheer.     Preferred  stock  was  sold  in  "Cleveland,  the  City  of 

*  See  p.  265. 

*  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Unnecessary  Gifts. 


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PUBLIC   RECREATION  323 

Good  Will  (Unlimited),  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  com- 
monwealth of  Good  Cheer."  Holly-bordered  certificates  in- 
dicated that : 

"The  holder  of  the  preferred  stock  shall  be  entitled  to  dividends  payable 
daily  in  the  form  of  the  happy  voices  of  robust  children,  the  contented  faces 
of  friendly  fellow  citizens  and  the  general  well-being  and  advancement  of 
the  said  City  of  Good  Will. 

"The  capital  herewith  subscribed  is  to  be  turned  over  to  the  treasurer 
of  the  Cleveland  I*"ederation  for  Charity  and  Philanthropy  for  .  .  .  invest- 
ment in  other  works  continuously  expressive  of  the  Christmas  spirit  of  good 
will  towards  men.  Dividends  as  above  specified  are  guaranteed  to  holders 
of  this  preferred  stock  during  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  from  date, 
after  which  this  certificate  requires  renewal." 

Forty- five  hundred  people  bought  $12,000  worth  of  stock  and 
cheered  13,000  families. 

The  Chicago  Playground  Festival  grew  out  of  the  popular 
patronage  of  Chicago's  great  playground  system.  Beginning 
in  1907  a  day  has  been  set  aside  when  juvenile  and  adult  games 
and  dances  are  presented  by  representatives  of  the  different 
neighborhoods  and  various  nationaUties  of  Chicago.  Out  of 
its  cosmopolitan  mixture  Chicago  has  produced  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  of  festivals  and  one  of  the  most  hopeful  tokens  of 
the  American  genius  for  assimilation. 

The  festival  has  been  put  within  reach  of  all  schools  and  com- 
munities through  its  elaboration  and  performance  by  the  Ethical 
Culture  Schools  of  New  York  under  the  guidance  of  Percival 
Chubb.  What  has  been  done  sporadically  or  accidentally 
elsewhere  has  been  done  systematically  and  comprehensively 
in  New  York.  The  May  Day  Festival  in  Central  Park  is  an 
inspiration  and  incentive  appropriated  by  the  municipal  school 
system. 

A  novel,  perhaps  unique,  celebration  is  the  Mount  Rubidoux 
Pilgrimage  commemorated  by  the  people  of  Riverside,  Cali- 
fornia, and  neighboring  communities.  On  Easter  morning  the 
rising  sun  is  saluted  from  the  top  of  Mount  Rubidoux.  The 
new  year  is  probably  nowhere  more  significantly  welcomed.  A 
stream  of  pilgrims  begins  in  the  middle  of  the  night  to  mount 
this  hill  that  rises  abruptly  from  the  level  valley.  There  is  a 
beautiful  automobile  road,  making  the  ascent  easier  for  less 
devout  pilgrims.     As  the  sun  begins  to  rise  a  little  prayer  is 


324  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

said  by  the  leader,  standing  by  the  cross  on  the  summit,  old 
universal  hymns  are  sung,  and  Dr.  Henry  van  Dyke's  "  God  of 
the  Open  Air"  is  read. 

The  attendance  at  this  sunrise  ceremony  of  the  vernal  new 
year  of  191 5  was  reported  to  be  not  less  than  10,000. 

Pageants 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  customary  in  American  dilettante 
circles  to  jest  about  the  epidemic  of  pageantry  in  Great  Britain. 
Since  then  America  has  become  infected  and  the  pageant  is  now 
one  of  the  most  seriously  regarded  institutions  of  joy  in  the 
cities  of  the  United  States.  A  Ust  of  the  municipal  and  civic 
pageants  that  have  already  been  produced  has  been  compiled 
by  the  American  Pageant  Association.^  Arlington,  Massa- 
chusetts, seized  the  opening  of  its  new  town  hall  in  191 3  to  pre- 
sent a  pageant  representative  of  the  topographical  and  historical 
significance  of  the  community.  More  than  five  hundred  per- 
formers participated.  Part  I  emphasized  the  fact  that  Arhng- 
ton  is  the  center  of  some  of  the  richest  market  gardens  in  the 
world,  and  so  its  subject  was  The  Sowing  of  the  Seeds  of  Civiliza- 
tion, based  on  the  story  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine.  The  Second 
Part  dealt  historically  with  The  Transplanting  and  Flowering  of 
Old- World  Seed  in  the  New. 

The  unifying  force  of  such  a  pageant  is  a  benediction  to  the 
community. 

The  greatest  pageant  the  new  spirit  of  the  city  has  inspired 
is  undoubtedly  the  St.  Louis  Pageant  of  1914.  Miss  Charlotte 
Rumbold,  of  the  St.  Louis  Public  Recreation  Commission,  and 
a  group  of  coworkers  were  responsible  for  initiating  a  community 
endeavor  that  quite  outranked  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposi- 
tion as  an  expression  of  civic  life.  In  the  huge  amphitheater 
of  Forest  Park,  where  the  Exposition  was  held,  a  stage  was 
erected  on  which  7500  people  performed,  a  cast  equal  to  the 
attendance  at  most  such  entertainments.  Nearly  half  a  million 
people  witnessed  the  performances,  125,000  gathering  on  one 
evening.  The  hours  were  from  6:30  to  10:30  on  five  even- 
ings.    Half  of  the  seats  were  free ;  the  other  half  provided  less 

'  A  partial  list  of  American  cities  in  which  pageants  have  been  performed 
appears  in  Appendix  4. 


PUBLIC   RECREATION  325 

than  half  of  the  $125,000  necessary  to  produce  the  colossal 
spectacle. 

The  program  included  the  Pageant  by  Thomas  Wood  Stevens 
and  the  Masque  by  Percy  MacKaye.  The  Pageant  set  forth 
the  history  of  St.  Louis  from  the  mound-building  era  of  the 
Indians  to  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  The  Masque  was  a  sym- 
bolical interpretation  of  the  struggle  of  civilization,  first  against 
the  forces  of  nature,  then  against  the  forces  of  greed.  The 
children  of  Gold  —  vice,  plague,  despair,  rebellion  —  were 
finally  routed  by  the  representatives  of  other  cities  summoned 
by  St.  Louis  to  a  league  to  conquer  Gold.  The  music  of 
Frederick  S.  Converse,  the  organization  of  a  committee  of  three 
hundred  to  put  the  pageant  through,  the  esprit  de  corps  of  the 
enormous  caste,  the  unbounded  enthusiasm  of  the  host  of  spec- 
tators utilized  the  pageant  and  masque  to  make  a  permanent 
civic  impression  on  St.  Louis. 

St.  Louis  is  for  the  first  time  a  civic  unit. 

The  utilitarian  business  man,  the  class  conscious  worker, 
even  the  social  idler,  may  gain  a  vision  of  solidarity  in  the  com- 
mon use  of  leisure. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

CITY   PLANNING 

"God  made  the  country,  and  man  made  the  town"  is  an  epi- 
grammatic denial  of  the  contemporary  tendency  to  unload 
responsibility  for  all  human  failings  on  God.  The  epigram  is 
not  only  reverential,  but  scientific.  Topography  determines  the 
city  plan.  Whether  the  plan  has  scientifically  and  economically 
followed  topography  or  has  stupidly  and  willingly  violated  it, 
topography  cannot  be  ignored.  Cities  would  not  be  were  it 
not  for  natural  advantages.  As  they  owe  their  existence  to 
geography,  so  they  owe  what  individuality  they  have  to  topog- 
raphy. The  chief  topographical  characteristics  determining 
cities  are  the  sea,  rivers,  hills  and  plains.  It  has  taken  a  cen- 
tury of  urban  development  to  impress  upon  city  builders  the 
necessity  of  respect  for  these  natural  features  to  which  the 
cities  owe  their  life  and  form. 

"The  stone  which  the  builders  refused  is  become  the  head 
stone  of  the  corner." 

Seaports 

New  York  is  essentially  a  city  on  the  sea.  Its  foundations 
were  laid  on  an  island.  The  chief  approaches  to  it  up  to  the 
last  generation  were  by  water.  It  has  shown  about  as  much 
appreciation  of  its  maritime  parentage  as  did  its  ancient  Dutch 
settlers,  when  they  built  the  high  stoop  basement  houses  on  New 
Amsterdam's  rocky  foundations  because  they  were  accustomed 
to  that  type  on  the  canals  of  Amsterdam.  New  York  lacks 
thoroughfares  to  get  trafiSc  uptown  because  Randall  planned 
New  York's  earliest  streets  to  give  short  cuts  to  the  water  front. 
It  is  bending  its  chief  energies  to-day  to  connect  its  scattered 
boroughs  by  tunneling  water  fronts. 

Chicago  is  a  city  on  the  sea,  owing  its  location  to  the  im- 

326 


CITY   PLANNING  327 

portance  of  Lake  Michigan.  Yet,  like  New  York,  its  street  plan 
should  have  been  determined  by  the  rivers  that  now  make  trans- 
portation difficult.  The  great  Chicago  Plan,  the  most  sump- 
tuous design  for  the  redemption  of  any  American  city,  purposes 
drawing  life  from  the  lake  as  frankly  as  though  it  had  not 
hitherto  been  held  in  contempt. 

San  Francisco  is  a  city  on  the  sea,  located  on  a  land-locked 
harbor,  so  obscure  that  its  entrance  was  overlooked  by  early 
discoverers.  This  water  front  is  admirably  used  for  communi- 
cation with  rapidly  growing  metropoUtan  suburbs,  but  San 
Francisco's  streets  clamber  over  the  hills  instead  of  circling  them. 
It  has  done  due  homage  to  the  sea,  but  none  to  the  hills.  Had 
the  original  plan  of  San  Francisco  given  as  great  consideration 
to  its  many  hills  as  it  did  to  its  water  approach,  it  might  have 
been  the  most  beautiful  city  in  the  world.  San  Diego  is  a  city 
on  the  sea,  languishing  a  long  time  waiting  for  population  to  fill 
up  its  limited  but  wonderful  back  country.  Now  that  condi- 
tions are  favorable  for  its  growth,  it  has  had  the  wisdom  to  make 
the  ocean  frontage  the  determining  factor  in  its  city  plan. 
Cleveland  is  a  city  on  the  sea  that  has  rapidly  outstripped  its 
neighbors  because  of  the  facilities  offered  by  Lake  Erie.  The 
scientific  and  artistic  improvement  of  Cleveland  now  taking 
form  is  as  obviously  dependent  on  the  lake  front  as  its  economic 
development  has  been. 

Buffalo  is  a  city  on  the  sea,  planned  in  1801  by  Joseph  Elli- 
cott,  who  was  inspired  by  the  plan  of  Washington.  Like  Wash- 
ington, Buffalo's  streets  were  designed  to  radiate  from  the  water 
entrance,  as  both  cities  were  laid  out  before  the  advent  of  rail- 
roads. When  the  railroads  came,  they  located  to  suit  their  own 
convenience,  and  the  downtown  district  of  Buffalo,  following  the 
gridiron  plan,  grew  out  of  harmony  with  the  original  design. 
After  many  years  of  agitation,  overcoming  the  opposition  of 
railroads  and  citizens,  Buffalo  promises  to  revert  to  its  original 
design,  locating  the  union  railway  station  near  the  lake  front 
and  dealing  harmoniously  with  both  its  sea  and  land  approaches. 

Boston  is  a  city  on  the  sea,  a  good  part  of  the  downtown  dis- 
trict having  been  redeemed  from  the  waters  in  Dutch  fashion. 
The  heart  of  Boston  is  the  Common,  bordered  by  Tremont 
Street,  named  for  the  three  mounts  that  marked  the  land  rising 
from  the  swamps  or  fens,  which  were  filled  in  to  make  the  busi- 


328  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

ness  district  of  Boston.  The  Charles  and  Mystic  rivers  help 
to  add  to  Boston's  water  front  and  make  its  street  plan  difficult. 
The  streets  of  old  Boston  converged  from  the  water  front  on 
three  sides  to  the  old  State  House.  Boston  has  so  outgrown 
this  little  neck  of  land  that  its  streets  largely  follow  contour 
lines,  so  that  the  hills  have  much  more  to  do  with  the  street 
plan  of  Boston  and  its  suburbs  than  has  the  sea. 

Still,  since  1775  American  cities  have  owed  a  great  deal  to 
Boston  harbor. 

River  Cities 

Detroit  is  a  city  on  a  river  without  the  great  natural  advan- 
tages of  Pittsburgh  or  Cincinnati  and  without  their  topographical 
difficulties.  Detroit  is  one  of  the  few  cities  in  America  to  benefit 
by  an  original  city  plan.  At  first  built  as  an  ancient  French 
city  with  streets  twelve  feet  wide,  it  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
devastated  by  a  fire  in  1805.  Territorial  Judge  Augustus  B. 
Woodward  planned  the  rebuilding  of  Detroit,  following  the  fines 
of  Washington.  There  are  two  radial  points.  From  Grand 
Circus  —  a  half  circle  —  broad  avenues  1 20  to  200  feet  wide 
radiate  and  meet  the  cross  streets,  80  to  100  feet  wide,  that 
radiate  from  the  Campus  Martius  a  half  a  mile  toward  the  river 
from  Grand  Circus.  The  Campus  Martius  is  an  area  600  by 
400  feet,  upon  which  is  the  city  hall,  and  it  remains  the  center  of 
Detroit.  Woodward  Avenue,  a  thoroughfare  120  feet  wide, 
runs  from  the  river  through  both  of  these  focal  points  dividing 
the  city. 

New  Orleans  is  another  city  on  a  river,  utterly  dependent 
upon  the  river,  but  with  a  plan  so  weird  in  its  violation  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  that  it  makes  a  sorry  contrast  to  Detroit.  New 
Orleans  lies  several  feet  below  the  Mississippi,  protected  by 
levees.  The  river  makes  an  S,  which  New  Orleans  tries  to  follow 
by  streets  running  at  right  angles  to  the  stream.  The  old 
French  town  radiated  from  a  tentative  center  where  are  congre- 
gated the  Southern  Pacific  Station,  the  United  States  Mint,  the 
archbishop's  residence  and  the  French  market.  The  new  town 
radiates  against  the  traffic  and  toward  the  river  from  a  point 
inland,  curiously  if  opportunely  beginning  at  the  junction  of 
Venus  and  St.  Peter  streets ! 

Whether  these  streets  were  named  subsequently  or  prior  to 


CITY  PLANNING  329 

this  misadventure,  they  lead  from  nowhere  to  the  river,  instead 
of  from  the  river  to  somewhere. 

Harrisburg,  a  city  on  a  river,  had  the  good  fortune  to  possess 
city  fathers  who  preserved  a  thoroughfare  along  the  river  — 
Front  Street.  The  public  thus  has  access  to  most  of  Harrisburg's 
waterfront,  although  that  was  the  only  respect  paid  to  the 
Susquehanna  River  until  Harrisburg  began  to  be  redeemed  in 
the  twentieth  century.  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  owe  their 
existence  entirely  to  the  Mississippi,  St.  Paul  being  at  the 
headwaters  of  navigation  and  Minneapolis  at  the  falls  that  give 
power  to  its  mills.  Both  cities  have  profited  slightly  by  having 
their  streets  determined  by  the  river,  and  both  are  now  respect- 
ing the  river  banks  by  incorporating  them  so  far  as  possible 
into  their  park  and  boulevard  system.  The  original  plan  of 
Washington  gave  due  reverence  to  the  Potomac  and  Anacostia 
rivers,  that  meet  to  make  the  peninsula  upon  which  Washington 
is  located,  and  L'Enfant  planned  a  canal  to  be  an  organic  part 
of  his  city  plan,  on  the  presumption  that  transportation  was  to  be 
by  water. 

Philadelphia  is  a  city  located  between  two  rivers  and  dis- 
regarding them  as  cavalierly  as  if  built  in  the  age  of  flying 
machines.  William  Penn  centered  Philadelphia  arbitrarily, 
planned  cross  streets  on  the  points  of  the  compass,  ran  all  the 
other  streets  parallel  to  Broad  Street  or  Market  Street,  estab- 
lished public  squares  at  the  intersection  of  these  main  thorough- 
fares, and  at  the  four  corners  of  the  presumptive  city,  and 
presto  the  Quaker  City  was ! 

Philadelphia  was  originally  built  on  the  square. 

Hill  Cities 

Boulder  and  Colorado  Springs  are  cities  on  the  hills,  singled 
out  from  their  sister  cities  because  these  beautifully  located 
places  in  Colorado  are  trying  to  live  up  to  the  beauty  of  their 
foundations.  The  hills  and  mountains  serve  as  background  to 
these  cities  for  the  most  part,  so  that  the  adaptation  of  their 
street  plans  has  been  an  afterthought.  Portland,  Oregon,  has 
tried  to  accommodate  itself  to  its  hills  and  its  mountain  out- 
looks, while  Seattle  has  tried  to  accommodate  the  hills  to  it  by 
washing  them  down  to  make  a  level  business  center,     Reginald 


330  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

H.  Thompson,  city  engineer,  has  washed  away  by  hydraulic 
pressure  16,000,000  cubic  yards  of  obstructive  hills.  Fifty-five 
acres  adjoining  the  business  area  have  been  leveled.  Seattle's 
streets  have  come  down  as  much  as  go  feet.  Among  American 
cities  that  have  had  due  reverence  for  hills  before  the  develop- 
ment of  remoter  suburban  areas  are  Lynchburg,  Birmingham 
and  Winston-Salem  —  all  in  the  South. 

The  gridiron  plan  of  William  Penn  has  been  superimposed 
upon  some  of  the  most  beautiful  topography  in  the  world. 

Prairie  Cities 

The  cities  on  the  plain  have  a  simpler  task,  requiring  only 
due  recognition  of  their  economic  functions.  The  ability  to 
locate  arbitrarily  for  the  sake  of  convenience  proved  no  ad- 
vantage in  the  early  planning  of  American  cities.  A  city  so  old 
as  San  Antonio  is  just  beginning  to  widen  its  ancient  Spanish 
streets,  planning  to  utilize  the  limitless  land  of  that  southwestern 
empire.  Los  Angeles,  with  a  magnificent  background  of  moun- 
tains, is  located  on  the  plain  so  that  the  street  problem  is  a 
simple  one.  Yet  no  city  has  dealt  more  unwisely  with  its  addi- 
tions and  subdivisions  than  has  Los  Angeles.  There  are  not 
half  a  dozen  thoroughfares  in  Los  Angeles,  because  each  sub- 
division was  built  without  regard  to  its  predecessor ;  every  long 
street  is  full  of  jogs.  Still  Los  Angeles  has  annexed  land  on  the 
sea  nearly  twenty  miles  away,  and  plans  its  future  with  refer- 
ence to  its  topographical  advantages. 

Sacramento,  a  capital  city  in  a  great  level  valley,  was  without 
beauty  until  it  awakened  to  the  new  civic  movement  in  the 
twentieth  century.  Rochester,  New  York,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  cities  of  the  plain,  a  city  legitimately  calhng  itself  the 
"Flower  City."  It  has  endeavored  to  use  its  commonplace 
topography  for  excellent  landscape  gardening.  Its  original  city 
plan,  however,  lacked  economy,  like  those  of  its  sister  cities, 
and  the  fundamental  changes  to  enable  Rochester  to  avail  itself 
of  its  topographical  simplicity  are  still  to  be  made. 

Pasadena  tries  to  make  up  in  profuse  planting  for  its  monoto- 
nous planning. 


CITY  PLANNING  331 

Business 

Whether  a  city  is  located  on  sea  or  river,  hill  or  plain,  its  social 
functions  are  the  same  as  those  of  other  cities.  It  must  care 
for  business,  communication,  public  life,  residence  and  recrea- 
tion. Most  cities  have  sacrificed  not  only  beauty  but  economy 
to  the  assertiveness  of  industry  and  transportation.  Unless  a 
city  is  a  residential  or  capital  city,  its  first  concern  is  business. 
Yet  business  men  have  been  the  chief  enemies  of  economy  in 
cities.  Even  cities  that  have  been  totally  sacrificed  to  indus- 
try, like  the  mining  and  factory  towns,  have  lost  far  more  than 
they  have  gained  by  uneconomic  plans.  Notoriously  hideous 
cities,  like  Youngstown  and  Butte,  are  so  filthy  and  ill-designed 
that  their  losses  mount  into  millions,  directly  due  to  the  able 
men  whose  petty  industrial  processes  have  injured  the  cities  in 
which  they  five  and  gain  their  incomes.  Even  quite  small 
cities  now  have  a  chamber  of  commerce  or  board  of  trade  de- 
signed to  further  their  business  interests.  In  most  cases  these 
organizations  are  not  conscious  of  the  fact  that  their  existence 
is  due  to  the  larger  economic  vision  of  these  latter  days.  In- 
creasingly, however,  their  organization  into  committees  indicates 
an  appreciation  of  civic  responsibility. 

Baltimore  has  a  factory  site  commission,  which  performs  for 
the  city  the  function  commonly  performed  by  a  committee  of  a 
chamber  of  commerce.  Eight  hundred  thousand  pieces  of  litera- 
ture have  been  distributed,  showing  Baltimore's  business  oppor- 
tunities. By  pamphlets,  circulars  and  maps  Baltimore  is 
making  itself  known  throughout  the  country.  Newark,  New 
Jersey,  by  billboards  attracts  the  attention  of  travelers  to  its 
factory  sites  along  the  new  municipal  docks. 

The  attention  many  cities  have  given  to  transportation  rates 
might  have  been  more  economically  given  to  the  cost  of  cartage. 

Some  few  cities  have  actually  planned  industrial  and  business 
districts.  The  states  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  have  au- 
thorized cities  to  set  aside  exclusive  districts.  The  city  of 
Minneapolis  has  availed  itself  of  the  Minnesota  law  estabHshing 
industrial  and  residential  districts.  Los  Angeles  has  gone  beyond 
any  American  city  in  the  definition  of  its  business  areas.  Most 
of  the  city  is  reserved  for  residence.  In  addition  to  certain 
pubUc  industrial  areas,  aggregating  not  more  than  one- tenth  of 


332  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

the  area  of  the  residence  district,  exceptions  are  permitted  in  the 
residential  section.  The  largest  industrial  district  measures 
five  miles  by  two,  but  there  are  fifty-eight  smaller  areas  known 
as  residence  exceptions,  in  which  certain  industries  can  be 
carried  on  if  the  owners  of  60  per  cent  of  the  neighboring  property 
frontage  give  their  consent.  The  use  of  these  sites  must  satisfy 
not  only  the  neighbors  but  the  fire  commissioners. 

Similar  legislation  in  Michigan  and  Illinois  has  been  declared 
unconstitutional,  but  in  California,  where  the  people  are  less 
dominated  by  property,  the  law  has  stood  the  test  of  the  highest 
state  courts. 

Some  cities  have  created  business  districts  by  redeeming 
land.  Conspicuous  among  these  are  Tacoma,  Oakland  and 
Lynn.  Tacoma  is  built  on  bluffs  rising  in  terraces  above  Puget 
Sound.  The  low-lying  end  of  the  Sound  has  been  filled  in  by 
sand  pumped  from  the  bottom  and  a  great  industrial  district 
is  thus  created  at  the  head  of  navigation.  Oakland  has  re- 
deemed an  immense  territory  from  San  Francisco  Bay.  Oak- 
land hes  on  the  shallow  side  of  the  bay  and  the  transportation 
lines  build  moles  extending  a  mile  or  more  out  into  the  bay  to 
expedite  the  ferry  service,  avoiding  the  tidal  flats.  Oakland 
has  filled  in  to  deep  water  and  will  have  municipal  docks  rival- 
ing those  of  San  Francisco.  Lynn  is  engaged  in  a  similar  en- 
deavor to  wrest  commerce  from  Boston  by  filling  in  her  unsightly 
mud  flats  that  are  left  gaping,  if  not  high  and  dry,  at  low  tide. 
While  New  York  is  compelled  by  the  government  to  cut  its 
1000-foot  slips  into  the  land  and  protect  the  channel  of  the 
Hudson,  Chicago  is  planning  its  docks  as  extensions  of  the  land 
into  the  lake. 

The  Yankee  may  not  "beat  the  Dutch,"  but  he  is  taking 
lessons  from  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

The  City  Sky-Line 

The  enthusiasm  for  the  skyscraper  office  building  and  the 
tolerance  of  the  tenement  fire-trap  pass  rapidly  as  cities  gain 
experience  with  these  menaces  to  life  and  property.  The  sky- 
scraper is  an  economic  burden  to  every  community,  and  when 
multipUed  penalizes  even  the  owners.  In  a  flash  of  enthusiasm 
people  rejoice  in  the  first  skyscraper  that  advertises  the  urban 


CITY   TLANNING  333 

quality  of  their  community.  This  fades  as  the  congestion  of  the 
streets,  the  hmitation  of  light  and  the  fire  dangers  increase.  A 
number  of  American  cities  have  begun  to  hmit  the  height  of 
buildings. 

Chicago  has  had  a  variegated  experience,  due  to  an  endeavor 
to  meet  growing  public  sentiment,  frustrated  temporarily  by  the 
ambitions  of  its  leading  newspaper.  A  limit  to  skyscrapers  was 
established  and  then  relaxed  in  order  that  this  newspaper  might 
erect  a  taller  building,  and  then  a  lower  level  was  resumed  again. 
No  building  higher  than  200  feet  may  now  be  erected  in  Chicago. 

Boston  was  a  pioneer  in  limiting  the  height  of  buildings  owing 
to  the  limitation  imposed  by  the  state  legislature  on  the  height 
of  the  buildings  about  Copley  Square.  This  height  was  set  at 
90  feet.  This  limitation  was  not  sustained  until  the  courts 
justified  the  scaling  off  of  the  top  floor  of  a  hotel  that  was  indis- 
creetly built  beyond  the  legal  limit.  Although  the  city  authori- 
ties issued  the  building  permit  for  this  structure,  the  court  sus- 
tained the  state  law  and  the  top  floor  was  sliced  off.  The  hotel 
found  some  compensation  in  opening  the  only  roof  garden  in 
Boston,  but  the  beauty  of  Copley  Square  is  marred  because  of 
the  failure  of  property  owners  to  think  in  the  same  generation 
as  their  contemporary  fellow-citizens.  From  this  isolated  in- 
stance, Boston  moved  on  to  the  securing  of  legislation  for  the 
general  limitation  of  buildings. 

Boston  has  set  bounds  to  the  "anarchy  of  American  archi- 
tecture." 

This  did  not  take  place  until  after  Congress  had  imposed 
limitations  on  the  height  of  buildings  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. While  the  buildings  are  not  so  restricted  in  the  business 
district  as  those  of  Boston,  the  residential  limitations  are  more 
severe.  Business  blocks  are  limited  in  height  to  the  width  of 
the  street  plus  20  feet.^  Residential  streets  are  protected  by 
permitting  no  buildings  wider  than  the  street  where  the  street 
is  less  than  60  feet  in  width,  and  limiting  the  buildings  to  a 
height  equal  to  the  width  of  the  street  minus  10  feet  on  streets 
that  are  70  feet  wide  or  wider.  On  certain  important  open 
spaces,  which  might  permit  a  higher  structure,  special  limitations 

■  On  no  business  street  can  there  be  a  building  exceeding  130  feet  in  height  except 
on  the  north  side  of  Pennsylvania  Avenue  between  First  and  Sixteenth  streets, 
where  160  feet  is  p)ermitted. 


334  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

are  imposed  so  that,  for  example,  no  building  facing  the  Union 
Station  Plaza  may  be  more  than  80  feet  in  height. 

In  1904  Boston  was  divaded  into  two  districts :  A  and  B. 
In  the  first  —  the  commercial  district  —  the  height  of  buildings 
is  not  to  be  greater  than  125  feet,  and  in  B  —  the  residential 
section  —  not  higher  than  80  feet.  This  act  was  amended  in 
1905,  limiting  the  height  of  residences  in  certain  districts  to  70 
feet.  Baltimore  has  limited  the  height  of  buildings  about  the 
Washington  Monument,  following  the  example  of  the  Copley 
Square  limitation  in  Boston.  Indianapolis  has  made  a  similar 
limitation  to  the  buildings  on  the  Circle  about  Monument 
Place.  Cities  of  the  second-class  in  New  York  State  may  estab- 
lish residential  districts.  Syracuse  and  Utica  have  availed  them- 
selves of  this  law.  The  Heights  of  Buildings  Commission  in 
New  York  City  secured  legislation  in  1914,  which  gives  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  power  to  create  districts 
with  restrictions  as  to  the  height  of  buildings  and  the  percentage 
of  the  lot  that  may  be  occupied. 

The  man  who  would  borrow  light  from  his  neighbor  must 
reciprocate. 

Communication 

Cities  have  been  laid  out  primarily  for  the  convenience  of 
property  owners.  The  rectangular  building  lot  simplifies  owner- 
ship, while  requiring  the  gridiron  plan  of  streets  with  its  waste- 
fulness and  inconvenience.  Where  city  blocks  are  large  alleys 
are  possible,  and  in  congested  areas  these  are  often  turned  into 
streets.  The  spacious  plan  of  Philadelphia  has  led  to  the  mul- 
tiplication of  streets  and  consequent  overcrowding.  In  the  most 
fashionable  part  of  the  city  the  oldest  families  generally  live 
inadvertently  in  the  slums.  The  ample  squares  of  Philadelphia 
have  been  laid  out  at  the  expense  of  the  streets  that  are  generally 
so  narrow  that  only  one  car  track  can  be  laid.  New  York's 
shallow  north  and  south  blocks  preclude  alleys  and  the  streets 
are  wide  enough  to  facilitate  traffic.  In  addition  to  the  streets 
that  New  York  is  pushing  through  solid  blocks  to  improve  its 
plan,  it  has  recently  widened  Twenty-third  Street  and  Fifth 
Avenue  by  compelling  the  removal  of  all  sidewalk  obstructions, 
reducing  the  width  of  the  sidewalk,  and  increasing  the  width  of 
the  trafiSc  area.     Fifth  Avenue  has  been  widened  from  Twenty- 


CITY   PLANNING  335 

third  Street  to  Fifty-ninth  Street  —  the  entrance  to  Central 
Park.  Livingston  Street,  Brooklyn,  has  been  widened  from 
60  to  100  feet  to  relieve  Fulton  Street,  that  formerly  carried  all 
the  Brooklyn  Bridge  traffic. 

It  is  the  narrow  way  that  leads  to  destruction  in  the  business 
district. 

Boston  has  been  sadly  hampered  by  lack  of  thoroughfares. 
In  all  its  history  it  has  spent  40  millions  in  street  widening. 
Two  streets  were  cut  through  blocks  to  connect  busy  parallel 
streets  in  1914.  San  Antonio  is  one  of  the  old  cities  where 
expanding  business  has  been  made  difficult  in  a  growing  city. 
One  of  the  alley-like  Spanish  streets  has  been  widened  for  several 
blocks  until  it  is  a  dignified  twentieth-century  thoroughfare. 
St.  Paul  is  widening  Robert  Street  at  the  expense  of  the 
property  holders  by  cutting  down  twenty  feet  on  one  side  of 
the  street,  letting  the  owners  on  the  other  side  share  the  expense. 
Nashville  is  finding  such  satisfaction  in  Capitol  Boulevard,  by 
which  it  opened  up  a  vista  to  the  Capitol,  that  the  extension  of 
this  street  from  Church  Street  to  Broadway  must  follow.  Capi- 
tol Boulevard  is  already  bordered  by  some  stately  buildings 
and  its  display  lighting  leads  appropriately  to  the  illuminated 
Capitol. 

Baltimore  has  created  the  Fallsway  over  its  enclosed  creek, 
Jones  Falls. ^ 

Philadelphia's  parkway  is  completed  from  Logan  Square  to 
Fairmount  Park.  It  terminates  at  the  Municipal  Art  Museum, 
which  is  located  on  an  old  reservoir  site.  The  extension  of  the 
Parkway  to  Penn  Square  in  the  very  center  of  the  city  is  being 
pushed.  This  will  give  Philadelphia  its  first  direct  thorough- 
fare from  the  business  section  to  Fairmount  Park  and  the  north- 
western part  of  the  city.  Newark  is  gaining  a  similar  advantage 
by  the  construction  of  Diagonal  Street  at  a  cost  of  $1,600,000. 

Every  school  child  knows  the  significance  of  the  hypothenuse 
of  a  right-angled  triangle. 

Since  Boston  leveled  hills  many  years  ago  there  has  been  no 
such  disrespect  shown  Nature's  protuberances  as  Seattle  has 
done  in  washing  its  hills  into  the  hollows  or  Pittsburgh  in  attack- 
ing the  Hump.  Pittsburgh's  Hump  was  an  obstacle  in  colonial 
days.     It  has  twice  had  layers  taken  off  the  top  —  in  1837  and 

»  See  pp.  100,  loi. 


336  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

1847  —  but  in  the  last  few  years  a  serious  endeavor,  involving 
over  a  million  in  damages  and  nearly  $700,000  in  regrading,  re- 
paving,  and  relaying  sewers  and  water  pipes,  has  opened  up 
business  streets  for  Pittsburgh,  clearing  thirty-five  acres  and 
giving  it  the  chance  to  have  a  civic  center  about  Richardson's 
Allegheny  County  Court  House.  Seven  million  dollars'  worth 
of  private  improvements  promptly  followed. 

Philadelphia,  having  widened  Delaware  Avenue  for  a  mile,  is 
extending  the  improvement  two  miles  more  to  give  itself  a 
worthy  waterfront  street  ranging  from  150  to  250  feet  in  width 
instead  of  50  feet  as  formerly.  Chicago  has  widened  Michigan 
Avenue  from  Park  Row  to  Randolph  Street  along  Grant  Park. 
Chicago's  task  was  simplified  by  being  able  to  borrow  from  the 
Park  area  and  not  assess  the  property  owners  on  the  west  side 
of  the  street  where  the  sidewalk  has  already  been  widened  from 
20  to  30  feet.  The  Michigan  Boulevard  driveway  has  been 
widened  from  50  to  75  feet  and  the  sidewalk  bordering  the  park 
from  12  to  25  feet.  Chicago  is  about  to  extend  this  boulevard 
across  the  river  by  a  double-deck  bridge  to  complete  its  boule- 
vard system.^ 

Chicago's  Boul  Mich  has  begun  to  rival  Tremont  Street  in 
Boston,  Princes  Street  in  Edinburgh  and  the  rue  de  RivoH  in 
Paris,  each  of  which  is  proud  of  being  "only  half  a  street." 

Many  cities  have  unused  possibilities  in  the  readjustment  of 
transportation  that  has  involved  the  abandonment  of  canals. 
Newark,  Ohio,  has  shown  how  not  to  do  it  by  selling  canal  space 
so  that  very  shallow  buildings  bordering  on  two  narrow  streets 
take  the  place  of  a  possible  boulevard  and  thoroughfare.  Jersey 
City  and  Newark,  New  Jersey,  have  the  prospect  of  wise  use 
of  this  important  space.  Rochester,  Syracuse  and  other  New 
York  cities  will  have  the  Mohawk  Valley  canal  site  set  free  by 
the  new  barge  canal. 

Baltimore  has  shown  that  a  petrified  stream  is  as  beautiful 
as  a  petrified  forest. 

Terminals 

Washington  has  the  best  land  entrance  and  San  Francisco 
the  best  water  entrance  in  the  United  States.^    Providence 

1  See  Chapter  XV. 
«  See  Chapter  II. 


Sidewalk  Encroachments,  New  York  City. 

East  23d  Street  from  4th  Avenue  to  Broadway. 


^iadiimimn 


Removal  of  Sidewalk  Encroachments,  New  York  City. 
East  23d  Street  from  4th  .Vvenue  to  Broadway. 


CITY   PLANNING  337 

ranks  next  to  Washington  in  the  convenience  of  its  terminal, 
the  coordination  of  steam  and  electric  transportation  and  the 
arrangement  of  streets  in  relation  to  the  station.  One  street 
runs  under  the  station.  Most  of  the  electric  lines  of  the  city 
converge  at  the  station  plaza,  facing  which  are  the  city  hall  and 
post  office.  The  grounds  of  the  Rhode  Island  Capitol  form  a 
background.  The  new  Kansas  City  union  station  is  an  archi- 
tectural triumph,  is  approached  without  grade  crossings,  and 
the  city  is  tearing  down  a  hill  to  build  a  park  opposite  the 
station.  Cleveland  is  building  a  union  station  on  the  lake  shore 
as  part  of  its  civic  center. 

The  new  entrances  to  Kansas  City  and  Cleveland  lift  those 
cities  from  the  bottom  of  the  list  to  a  place  near  the  top. 

Civic  Architecture 

The  improvement  of  civic  architecture  in  defiance  of  the 
colossal  egotism  of  the  nouveaux  riches  is  one  of  the  recent 
triumphs  of  American  municipal  life.  The  habit  of  American 
business  men  of  atoning  for  the  exploitation  of  cities  by  impos- 
ing monuments  upon  the  long-suffering  communities  is  yielding 
to  the  increasing  initiative  of  civic  experts.  Minneapolis  has 
had  a  municipal  union  station  and  other  buildings  of  its  pro- 
posed civic  center  delayed  if  not  frustrated  by  the  monument 
to  senility  built  by  Great  Northern  influence  for  allied  railways. 
Nevertheless,  the  nearby  divergence  of  Hennepin  and  Nicollet 
avenues  is  marked  by  the  handsomest  convenience  station  in 
America,  and  the  more  enlightened  business  men,  organized  in 
the  Civic  and  Commerce  Association,  are  trying  to  redeem  the 
city.  Similar  influences  have  defeated  the  civic  center  in  St. 
Paul.  The  J.  J.  Hill  Reference  Library  shares  a  party  wall 
with  the  municipal  library,  but  requires  the  uneconomic  ad- 
ministration characteristic  of  railways  that  fight  union  stations. 
These  libraries,  instead  of  being  units  in  the  civic  center,  are 
confronted  by  the  leading  business  men's  club  of  St.  Paul, 
that  has  stolen  part  of  a  public  street  for  a  sporting  addition  to 
the  clubhouse. 

Men  accustomed  to  loot  cities  are  not  likely  to  be  wise  bene- 
factors with  their  conscience  money. 

The  growing  enlightenment  of  business  men  has  put  pressure  on 


338  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

the  Pennsylvania  Railway  Company  to  locate  Chicago's  West 
Side  station  as  well  as  possible  after  the  Northwestern  Station 
was  imposed  upon  the  city.  The  latter  is  an  excellent  building 
entirely  misplaced  to  satisfy  the  obstinacy  of  a  big  business  man 
of  the  old  school.  Boston's  business  taste  has  inflicted  on  the 
city  a  skyscraping  tower  that  grows  out  of  the  classic  base  of 
the  old  Custom  House.  A  greater  architectural  monstrosity 
it  would  be  hard  to  find.  But  coincidently  with  this  banality 
the  Bullfinch  front  of  the  State  House  marks  a  fidelity  to  original 
standards  that  is  reassuring. 

The  artistic  blunders  of  America  are  not  due  to  lack  of 
tradition. 

Among  the  architectural  treasures  of  cities  Independence 
Hall  in  Philadelphia  and  the  old  City  Hall  in  New  York  are 
conspicuous.  Philadelphia  has  restored  Independence  Hall  to 
its  colonial  proportions  and  keeps  Independence  Square  in  the 
rear  appropriately  beautiful.  Not  content  with  this,  Phila- 
delphia is  planning  to  clear  out  half  a  block  north  of  Chestnut 
Street  in  front  of  the  shrine  of  the  Liberty  Bell  and  the  scene 
of  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The  City 
Hall  in  New  York,  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  is  New  York's  most  precious  artistic  heritage.  Walled 
in  by  skyscrapers,  it  maintains  its  dignity  in  City  Hall  Square, 
about  which  stately  municipal  buildings  are  confronting  New 
York's  grandiose  commercial  structures. 

The  past  is  incarnate  in  the  present  by  recent  buildings  and 
monuments  of  classic  mould. 

The  little  art  museum  of  Toledo  stands  in  almost  sublime 
isolation,  guarded  by  dark,  protecting  trees.  Cleveland  has  a 
museum  in  Wade  Park,  St.  Louis  a  museum  in  Forest  Park, 
and  Buffalo  one  in  its  former  exposition  park,  all  of  which  hark 
back  to  established  standards  in  their  architecture.  The  Wash- 
ington Monument  in  Baltimore,  the  Washington  Arch  at  the 
beginning  of  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  the  Spreckels  Band  Stand 
in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco,  and  the  convenience 
station  at  the  entrance  to  the  business  center  of  Minneapolis 
all  follow  classic  models. 

Many  roads  still  lead  to  Rome. 

Structures  now  multiply  of  more  independent  design.  The 
Chicago  field  houses  in  the  Chicago  playgrounds  are  dignified 


CITY    PLANNING  339 

and  beautiful  examples  of  plastic  architecture.  A  few  are 
thoroughly  modern  brick  buildings,  but  most  of  them  grow  on 
the  spot  out  of  concrete.  The  majority,  designed  by  D.  H. 
Burnham  and  Company,  have  some  concrete  or  tile  ornamen- 
tation. Sherman  Field  House  has  an  auditorium  appropriately 
decorated  by  Art  Institute  pupils.  The  Lion  House  at  Lincoln 
Park,  Chicago,  by  Perkins,  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  is  a  promis- 
ing example  of  the  possible  beauty  in  every  building  that  is 
perfectly  adapted  to  function.  Its  red  brick  and  terra  cotta 
exterior,  its  green  tile  background  for  the  tawny  beasts,  and  its 
perfect  sanitation  set  standards  for  human  housing.  The 
aquariums  of  New  York  and  Boston  serve  their  purpose  per- 
fectly. These  homes  of  the  lower  animals  have  their  counter- 
part in  other  buildings  consecrated  to  man's  humbler  needs. 
The  new  public  market  in  Cleveland,  most  of  the  new  fire 
stations,  many  power  houses,  concrete  standpipes,  and  the  jail 
in  St.  Paul,  that  is  often  confused  with  the  leading  club,  are 
worthy  adornments  of  the  cities. 

The  newer  standpipes  are  much  handsomer  than  the  stock 
soldiers'  monuments. 

Among  the  most  beautiful  embellishments  of  cities  are  bridges.^ 
The  first  Brooklyn  Bridge,  with  its  perfect  proportions,  the 
majestic  High  Bridge  carrying  one  of  the  Croton  aqueducts 
across  the  Harlem  River  in  New  York,  and  its  companion  over 
the  Harlem — the  most  beautiful  iron  bridge  in  America — ■  the 
pillared  entrance  of  the  Susquehanna  bridge  to  Harrisburg,  and 
the  simple  Cabin  John  Bridge  near  Washington  are  examples 
of  the  legion  of  handsome  bridges  now  adorning  American  cities. 

Monuments  and  sculpture  also  multiply.  The  Shaw  Me- 
morial on  the  Common  in  Boston,  the  St.  Gaudens  Lincoln,  the 
Borglum  Lincoln,  the  Cincinnati  Fountain  in  Fountain  Square, 
Lorado  Taft's  Fountain  of  the  Great  Lakes  in  Grant  Park, 
Chicago,  and  the  Farragut  Memorial  in  Madison  Square,  New 
York,  are  above  reproach. 

City  Halls 

Civic  pride  has  expressed  itself  in  some  exceptional  city 
halls.     Chicago's  begrimed  city  and  county  building  of  the  later 

'   See  pp.  28,  29. 


340  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

nineteenth  century  has  yielded  to  a  twentieth-century  twin 
building  of  modern  interior  convenience  and  external  dignity, 
occupying  a  block  in  Chicago's  loop  district.  St.  Louis  set 
its  city  hall  in  an  open  space  that  is  to  be  the  beginning  of  its 
great  Central  Parkway,  and  East  St.  Louis  has  imitated  the 
architecture  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  smaller  dimensions.  New 
York's  mammoth  municipal  building,  built  on  a  scale  as  titanic 
as  its  commercial  neighbors,  gives  impressive  background  to 
the  charming  architecture  of  the  old  City  Hall. 

Alexandria,  Louisiana,  sets  its  city  hall  in  a  city  square  with 
the  dignity  of  architecture  and  landscape  architecture  com- 
monly given  to  the  county  court  house.  Meriden,  Connecticut, 
is  one  of  the  smaller  cities  that  has  set  its  town  hall  on  a  hill. 
At  the  convergence  of  two  streets,  flanked  by  churches,  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and  the  public  library,  the 
colonial  city  hall  occupies  an  impressive  triangle.  The  munici- 
pal group  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  has  estabhshed  a  new 
standard  for  the  country.  The  pair  of  classic  buildings  —  audi- 
torium and  city  hall  —  with  the  Campanile  between,  located 
on  the  river  front,  facing  a  city  park,  advertise  Springfield  be- 
yond any  possible  commercial  achievement.  The  latest  of  the 
city  halls  of  exceptional  beauty  is  that  of  San  Francisco.  As  a 
successor  to  the  many  domed  blunder  of  earher  days,  this  white 
granite  building,  occupying  a  city  block  and  facing  the  plaza 
of  the  civic  center,  is  a  symbol  of  the  new  San  Francisco. 

The  city  fathers  command  more  respect  in  a  dignified  city 
home. 

Library  BuiLDmGS 

The  new  artistic  Hfe  of  many  a  community  is  marked  by  the 
building  of  the  public  library.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  kind  of 
structure,  unless  it  be  the  post  office,  is  so  hkely  to  give  distinc- 
tion to  the  small  city.  The  first  of  these  buildings  is  the  Boston 
Public  Library.  As  a  library  building,  this  structure  is  a  fail- 
ure ;  as  a  work  of  art,  it  is  the  chief  monument  of  Mr.  McKim 
of  McKim,  Mead  and  White.  The  facade  was  inspired  by  the 
BibHotheque  Ste.  Genevieve  in  Paris,  but  the  triple  entrance 
and  the  legend,  "Free  for  All,"  proclaim  the  democracy  of  the 
American  municipal  Hbrary. 

The  mural  decorations  of  Puyis  de  Chavannes,  Abbey  and 


CITY   PLANNING  341 

Sargent,  and  the  architectural  detail  of  the  fagade  and  inner 
court,  give  the  Boston  Public  Library  unique  distinction. 

The  most  sumptuous  of  municipal  libraries  is  that  of  New 
York.  The  combined  Astor,  Lenox  and  Tilden  foundations 
have  provided  a  storehouse  for  books  appropriate  to  the  location 
at  Forty-second  Street  and  Fifth  Avenue.  The  architecture  is 
pseudo-classic  and  the  generous  proportions  are  no  more  waste- 
ful than  those  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  Terminal.  If  the 
building  is  exceptionally  luxurious  for  democracy's  needs,  it  is 
less  vulgar  than  the  fashionable  clubs  and  restaurants  on  Fifth 
Avenue.  It  gives  the  masses  appropriately  the  most  distin- 
guished building  on  that  avenue  de  luxe,  even  if  its  pagan  beauty 
does  not  rival  that  of  some  of  the  Christian  churches  that  cater 
to  the  luxurious  classes. 

The  rarely  beautiful  town  halls  of  Italy  and  Belgium  gave 
the  people  no  such  service  as  they  enjoy  in  the  New  York  Pubhc 
Library. 

St.  Louis  has  made  a  happy  substitution  of  the  new  library 
building  for  the  old  exposition  building.  St.  Paul  has  lost 
by  fire  its  Ubrary,  housed  above  an  old  market  building,  and  gets 
a  handsome  new  structure  fronting  on  a  delightful  little  park 
with  the  possibility  of  a  vista  to  the  river  some  day.  The  Mult- 
nomah County  Library  of  Portland,  Oregon,  is  a  seemly  piece 
of  architecture,  admirably  appointed  for  Hbrary  uses.  It  in- 
cludes excellent  provision  for  the  staff  in  contrast  with  the  monu- 
mental inadequacy  of  Boston,  Chicago  and  other  older  Hbraries. 
The  legion  of  smaller  library  buildings  may  be  represented  by 
Richardson's  little  gem  at  Woburn,  Massachusetts,  the  classic 
structure  of  Winona,  Minnesota,  the  modern  building  uncon- 
strained by  precedent  at  Colorado  Springs,  and  the  exception- 
ally decorated  building  on  which  Charles  R.  Lamb,  Mrs.  Lamb 
and  F.  S.  Lamb  have  cooperated  in  Water  town,  New  York, 

The  municipal  librarians  are  a  generation  ahead  of  the 
municipal  architects. 

SCHOOLHOUSES 

The  Uttle  red  schoolhouse  is  no  longer  adequate  to  the  country 
where  the  centralized  school  appHes  the  best  of  urban  experi- 
ence to  rural  conditions.  In  the  cities  the  enlargement  of  the 
curriculum,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  pupils,  the  improve- 


342  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

ments  in  architecture,  and  the  higher  standards  of  taste  have 
resulted  in  buildings  without  any  historic  precedent.  Private 
philanthropy  has  had  no  such  influence  as  in  public  library 
building,  where  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  has  played  Santa  Claus 
to  a  multitude  of  cities.  Philanthropy  has  occasionally  had  the 
wisdom  to  endow  public  schoolhouses  instead  of  embarrassing 
communities  as  generous,  opinionated  Stephen  Girard  did  Phila- 
delphia. Menomonie,  Wisconsin;  Warren,  Pennsylvania;  and 
Macon,  Georgia,  are  among  the  cities  that  fare  better  than  their 
neighbors  because  not  limited  to  taxes  for  their  equipment. 
The  most  notable  schoolhouses  in  America  are,  however,  the 
product  of  public  spirit,  public  enlightenment  and  pubhc  money. 
Chicago's  per  capita  expenditure  for  high  school  buildings  has 
quadrupled  in  fifteen  years. 

Before  this  generation  the  world  had  never  seen  such  public 
schoolhouses  as  the  magnificent  high  school  building  of  Tacoma 
or  the  Washington  Irving  High  School  in  New  York.  Over- 
looking Washington  Irving's  old  home  at  the  corner  of  Seven- 
teenth Street  and  Irving  Place  the  most  urban  of  high  schools 
lifts  its  nine  stories.  It  has  accommodations  for  5000  girls  and 
over  200  instructors.  Costing  a  million  and  a  quarter  to  build 
and  equip,  the  Washington  Irving  High  School  replaced  six 
schools  by  housing  two  schools  of  2600.  The  sessions  last  all 
day,  the  foyers  on  the  first  and  second  floors  enabhng  the  two 
schools  to  assemble  and  dismiss  without  confusion.  The  build- 
ing has  every  facility  for  the  usual  feminine  vocations.  The 
domestic  science  department  includes  a  six-room  housekeeping 
apartment.  No  business  college  is  better  equipped  for  com- 
mercial work.  The  roof  is  used  for  both  basket  ball  and  garden- 
ing. The  dining  room  seats  700.  The  biological  sciences  are 
taught  not  only  by  specimens  and  lantern  slides;  150  hving 
animals  from  the  Bronx  Zoo  are  housed  in  the  school's  animal 
house. 

The  building  is  so  ample  in  size  and  equipment  that  it  is 
naturally  patronized  a  great  deal  by  the  general  public.  The 
main  foyer  is  known  as  the  Municipal  Art  Museum  through 
having  been  used  so  often  for  popular  exhibitions.  The  audi- 
torium has  served  the  Educational  and  the  Children's  Players 
and  all  kinds  of  neighborhood  entertainments.  The  large  gym- 
nasium in  the  basement  is  used  for  municipal  dances.     Evening 


CITY   PLANNING  343 

classes,  lectures  and  dances  go  on  simultaneously  without  con- 
fusion. 

What  would  Rip  Van  Winkle  say? 

Tacoma  took  advantage  of  an  over-ambitious  railway  and 
seized  the  incompleted  hotel  designed  for  lavish  tourist  enter- 
tainment. The  building  is  fortunately  located  on  a  bluff  over- 
looking Puget  Sound  in  sight  of  Tacoma's  snowclad  peak. 
Beside  the  building  is  the  amplest  public  school  stadium  in  the 
country,  ideally  built  in  a  little  canyon  or  gulch. 

A  high  school  building  costing  several  hundred  thousand 
dollars  and  worth  every  cent  of  it  to  the  community  is  not  at 
all  unusual  in  smaller  cities.  School  architecture  has,  however, 
been  worked  out  in  twentieth-century  terms  chiefly  in  New 
York,  St.  Louis  and  Chicago. 

Mr.  C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  school  architect  of  New  York,  has  solved 
the  difficult  problem  of  that  most  congested  city.  The  huge 
high  school,  like  the  Erasmus  in  Brooklyn  or  the  Wadleigh  in 
Harlem,  houses  more  pupils  than  any  other  city  is  called  upon 
to  do,  without  sacrificing  safety,  hygiene  or  beauty.  The  letter 
H  schoolhouse  is  a  happy  solution  of  congestion  coupled  with 
the  shallow  Manhattan  city  block.  This  type  of  building  runs 
through  the  block,  having  a  court  for  boys  on  one  street,  another 
for  girls  on  the  other  street.  Thus  the  city  gets  two  frontages 
without  the  expense  of  a  corner  lot.  Roof  playgrounds  meet 
the  needs  of  recreation  as  well  as  the  expense  of  land  will  permit. 

The  new  Flushing  High  School  bears  witness  to  Mr.  Snyder's 
ability  to  design  a  beautiful  suburban  building. 

Mr.  Ittner  has  enabled  St,  Louis  to  lead  the  West  in  the 
beauty  of  school  architecture.  The  St.  Louis  schoolhouses 
led  the  country  until  Mr.  Ittner  and  others  began  to  be  sum- 
moned for  expert  aid  to  other  cities.  Now  the  St.  Louis  type 
of  individualized  schoolhouse  is  becoming  ubiquitous.  Rich- 
mond, Indiana,  possesses  an  Ittner  high  school  with  a  beautiful 
bold  fafade,  decorated  by  bas  relief,  an  art  gallery  on  the  top 
floor,^  and  an  auditorium  entered  by  the  two  corridors  that  lead 
from  the  street.  Two  sides  of  the  auditorium  open  completely 
on  these  corridors,  so  that  the  audience  can  be  turned  into  them 
en  masse. 

The  Hibbing,  Michigan,  High  School,  like  a  number  of  Mr. 

'  See  p.  263. 


344  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

Ittner's  schools  in  St.  Louis,  has  been  embeUished  with  mural 
paintings.  In  this  instance,  Mr.  D.  T.  Workman  has  repre- 
sented in  the  assembly  hall  the  appropriate  story  of  "Iron."  * 

Mr.  D.  H.  Perkins,  while  school  architect  of  Chicago,  estab- 
lished a  new  standard  in  the  extensible  city  school  building. 
In  growing  neighborhoods  the  central  section  of  a  large  build- 
ing is  so  constructed  that  additions  may  be  organic.  The  ex- 
penditure may  thus  be  spread  out  over  a  period  of  years,  but  in 
the  end  the  economy  of  large  scale  construction  may  be  enjoyed. 
The  Chicago  schoolhouses  have  been  pioneers  in  certain  in- 
valuable utiHtarian  methods,  such  as  the  cloak  rooms  and  toilets 
on  each  floor,  the  blank  wall  giving  architectural  distinction 
with  great  saving  to  the  eyes  of  pupils,  and  the  semi-detached 
auditorium,  gymnasium  and  work  shops.  Two  of  Mr.  Perkins's 
other  successes  (the  work  of  Perkins,  Fellows  and  Hamilton) 
have  been  the  one-story  schoolhouse  and  the  group  plan  for 
large  schools.  An  elementary  schoolhouse  at  Evanston,  Illi- 
nois, consists  of  an  auditorium  as  the  core  of  the  building  sur- 
rounded by  classrooms,  each  one  of  which  opens  to  the  beautiful 
school  campus  of  five  acres.  The  stage  of  the  auditorium  is 
large  enough  for  the  kindergarten,  can  be  shut  off  from  the  audi- 
torium so  both  can  be  used  at  once,  and  by  its  elevation  above 
the  remainder  of  the  main  floor  gives  access  to  a  terrace  where 
the  httle  ones  can  be  kept  outdoors  and  still  off  the  damp 
ground  if  desired. 

It  is  better  for  school  children  to  climb  trees  than  stairs. 

The  second,  —  the  New  Trier  High  School  buildings  at  Kenil- 
worth,  Illinois,  —  is  an  architectural  composition,  consisting  of 
main  building  for  conventional  studies,  flanked  by  gymnasiums 
and  swimming  bath  on  one  side  and  auditorium  surmounted 
by  a  refectory  and  kitchen  on  the  other  side.  Behind  the  main 
building  is  the  manual  training  addition.  Appropriately  placed 
about  the  fourteen-acre  campus  are  athletic  field,  tennis  courts, 
gardens  and  agricultural  plot.  This  high  school  serves  several 
suburbs  of  Chicago  and  is  not  only  a  great  school,  but  an  im- 
portant social  center. 

Rochester,  New  York,  has  also  attracted  attention  with  one- 
story  schoolhouses.     Los  Angeles  has  built  several  schoolhouses 

'  For  a  description  of  Mr.  Ittner's  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis, 
see  Appendix  i. 


'|*»?J^5^^-^;. 


.-.ifn 


-'    T 


Perkins,  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  ArcMleas. 

A  Chicago  Suburban  High  School  Group. 


Photograph  t>y  Potter. 


High  School  and  Stadium,  Tacoua. 


CITY   PLANNING  345 

of  two  stories  on  the  Mexican  patio  plan  with  an  interior  court. 
An  arcade  makes  the  patio  available  in  inclement  weather. 
Each  new  school  building  in  Cincinnati  is  equipped  with  gym- 
nasium and  swimming  tank.  Every  schoolhouse  in  Little  Rock, 
Arkansas,  occupies  an  entire  block.  The  Abingdon,  Virginia, 
High  School  stands  on  the  summit  of  a  twenty-acre  hill.  The 
Evanston,  lUinois,  Public  School  Art  Society  has  authority  to 
supervise  and  purchase  all  the  school  decorations. 

The  ideal  schoolhouse  has  "atmosphere,"  and  is  open  to  the 
sun  and  the  public. 

Civic  Centers 

The  individual  public  building  of  excellence  no  longer  satisfies 
the  standards  of  modern  city  making.  The  arrangement  of 
public  buildings  for  convenience,  beauty  and  civic  inspiration  is 
an  old  story  in  Europe.  It  has  been  done  sporadically  in  this 
country.  There  is  now  a  fine  appreciation  among  all  public 
servants  of  ability  and  citizens  of  taste  of  the  necessity  of  civic 
centers.  So  far  has  this  appreciation  gone  in  Chicago  that  a 
movement  is  under  way  to  promote  neighborhood  centers  that 
each  residence  section  may  have  its  minor  civic  center. 

The  most  ambitious  grouping  of  public  buildings  is  in  Wash- 
ington. The  nation's  capital  furnishes  analogy  for  other  cities 
only  in  the  fact  that  the  scientific  and  aesthetic  grouping  of 
buildings  is  a  result  of  the  growing  knowledge  and  taste  that 
have  set  to  work  to  redeem  the  blunders  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. The  Mall  is  being  cleared  of  its  jumble  of  nondescript 
structures.  The  new  railway  station  not  only  faces  a  noble 
plaza,  but  looks  up  a  street  lined  by  public  buildings  to  the  Cap- 
itol and  is  adjoined  by  the  branch  post  office.  The  grotesque 
symmetry  of  the  classic  treasury  building  and  the  degenerate 
French  State,  War  and  Navy  Department  building  to  the  right 
and  the  left  of  the  colonial  White  House  will  be  partly  neutralized 
by  the  location  of  harmonious  architecture  along  the  Mall  and 
Pennsylvania  Avenue. 

Civic  centers  may  be  parochial  or  national  as  well  as  municipal. 

Other  capital  cities  enjoy  more  or  less  accidental  civic  centers, 
notably  Richmond  and  Lansing.  Cleveland  and  Des  Moines 
were  among  the  earhest  cities  to  plan  civic  centers  in  logical 
locations  on  the  water  front.     Both  of  these  are  still  in  process 


346  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

of  development,  delayed  by  lack  of  public  funds  or  private 
cooperation.  The  river  front  in  Des  Moines  has  been  trans- 
formed for  a  considerable  stretch  on  one  side.  The  library, 
post  office,  coliseum  and  city  hall  have  been  built  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  one  and  a  half  millions  and  two  imposing  concrete  bridges 
cross  the  river.  Cleveland's  County  Court  House  stands  upon 
the  improved  lake  front ;  the  post  office  is  at  the  other  end  of 
the  civic  center ;  the  city  hall  is  rising,  and  the  railway  station 
below  the  bluffs  is  in  evidence.  The  civic  center  will  ultimately 
lead  from  the  station  and  the  lake  to  Cleveland's  central  square  (its 
local  transportation  center),  and  promises  to  furnish  one  of  the 
most  dignified  architectural  vistas  in  America.  Cleveland  was 
fortunate  in  securing  the  complete  cooperation  of  the  Federal 
Government  and  Cuyahoga  County,  which  have  in  fact  done 
their  work  first. 

Cedar  Rapids  followed  Des  Moines'  lead  and  promptly  used 
the  river  for  its  civic  center  location. 

Denver  has  been  at  work  some  time  on  its  civic  center,  de- 
signed to  include  the  State  House,  Court  House,  new  library 
and  other  public  buildings.  Unfortunately  the  post  office,  a 
magnificent  piece  of  classic  imitation  unrelated  to  anything 
else,  has  already  violated  the  scheme.  Denver  has  been  sadly 
hampered  by  the  anarchy  in  Colorado  and  the  corruption  in  the 
city  that  have  blighted  its  public  spirit  and  caused  a  grave  com- 
mercial slump. 

Hartford  was  one  of  the  earliest  cities  to  make  a  city  plan, 
the  outgrowth  of  an  ambition  to  have  a  civic  center.  Bushnell 
Park,  with  the  capitol,  bordered  by  public  buildings,  is  most 
happily  located  in  view  of  the  city's  railroad  entrance.  Provi- 
dence has  a  more  complete  civic  center,  but  the  railway  station 
is  the  focal  point  and  beauty  is  sacrificed  to  convenience. 

The  mastery  of  service  is  hard  to  learn. 

Brookline,  Massachusetts,  has  beautiful  public  buildings 
conveniently  located  near  a  pleasing  street  railway  station,  but 
they  are  so  congested  that  the  dignity  of  a  civic  center  is  lack- 
ing. Winchester,  Massachusetts,  has  one  of  the  most  successful 
civic  centers  of  the  smaller  towns.  The  railway  from  Boston 
approaches  the  town,  passing  the  Mystic  Lakes  and  the  Mystic 
Valley  Parkway  (parts  of  the  Metropolitan  Park  system),  and 
reaches  the  town  center  and  railway  station  by  passing  between 


CITY    PLANNING  347 

a  private  and  a  public  park  for  half  a  mile.  The  station  is 
backed  by  the  common  and  the  old  stately  Congregational 
church.  Across  from  the  station  is  the  playground.  Crossing 
a  graceful  concrete  bridge  over  the  Aberjona  River,  the  road 
I)asses  between  the  post  office  and  the  Unitarian  church,  and 
beyond  the  town's  main  street  runs  the  Mystic  Valley  Parkway 
(leading  to  the  Middlesex  Fells).  The  Parkway  is  flanked  by 
the  town  hall,  sheltered  by  stately  trees,  and  the  handsome  high 
school  standing  conspicuously  on  a  hill.  The  vista  of  the  town 
hall  has  for  a  foreground  another  graceful  concrete  bridge  and 
a  little  pond. 

The  town  greets  the  visitor  with  an  engaging  smile. 
New  York's  metropolitan  dimensions  make  a  single  civic 
center  inadequate.  The  old  city  hall,  the  new  municipal  build- 
ing, the  courts  and  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  terminus  make  City 
Hall  Park,  Manhattan,  the  logical  metropolitan  center.  Brook- 
lyn had  an  opportunity  to  locate  a  new  civic  center  appropriate 
to  its  increasing  dimensions.  The  ancient  inertia  was  too  power- 
ful and  the  old  borough  hall  with  new  approaches  from  the 
bridges  will  have  to  serve  as  the  borough  civic  center.  The 
rivalry  of  the  various  boroughs  will  ultimately  result  in  giving 
New  York  several  important  if  not  ideal  civic  centers. 

New  York  presents  the  familiar  paradox  of  the  irresistible 
force  meeting  the  immovable  obstacle. 

San  Francisco's  civic  center  is  planned  and  assured.  Nearly 
$12,000,000  has  been  voted.  The  auditorium,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  plaza,  and  the  city  hall,  on  the  west,  are  completed. 
The  former  cost  $1,300,000.  The  latter  has  cost  $4,000,000 
and  the  interior  is  not  yet  finished.  The  Plaza  is  already  in  a 
beautiful  state  of  cultivation.  The  state  building  is  to  stand 
on  the  north  and  the  Hbrary  to  occupy  half  of  the  east  side. 
The  other  half  was  to  have  been  utilized  for  the  municipal  opera 
house  that  Mayor  Rolfe  vetoed  when  San  Francisco's  society 
people  tried  to  exact  special  privileges  from  the  city.  The  civic 
center  is  almost  ideally  located,  using  the  three  blocks  occupied 
by  the  city  hall  destroyed  in  the  fire  and  adding  five  and  a  half 
by  purchase. 

Buffalo  has  decided  to  solve  its  transportation  dilemma  by 
having  the  civic  center  open  out  of  both  the  passenger  and 
freight  terminals,  the  latter  on  the  lake  front. 


348  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  most  ambitious  plans  of  a  municipality  are  those  of 
Chicago.  The  report  of  Mr.  Burnham  and  Mr.  Bennett,  illus- 
trated by  Jules  Guerin,  is  the  lavish  gift  of  the  Commercial 
Club.  It  provides  for  a  civic  center  near  the  population  center 
on  the  west  side.  This  involves  such  colossal  reconstruction 
that  its  realization  seems  remote.  The  widening  of  Michigan 
Avenue  along  Grant  Park  and  the  lake  shore,  the  widening  of 
Twelfth  Street  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  the  treatment  of 
the  lake  front  and  outer  park  system  in  accordance  with  this 
magnificent  twentieth-century  plan  make  it  not  improbable 
that  the  whole  project  will  one  day  be  consummated. 

There  is  nothing  petty  about  Chicago  but  politics. 

Residential  Areas 

The  establishment  of  residence  districts  is  a  protection 
against  the  unexpected  intrusion  of  undesirable  businesses.  Los 
Angeles  leads  in  the  differentiation  of  such  areas. ^  Every  city 
of  any  size  estabUshes  fire  limits,  conceding  more  liberal  build- 
ing regulations  to  districts  in  which  there  are  detached  houses. 
Fire  and  sanitary  regulations  are  more  severe  in  the  case  of 
tenements.  Building  hues  usually  have  to  be  estabhshed  by 
private  consent  to  be  safe.  Many  promising  residential  sections 
of  detached  houses  set  back  from  the  sidewalk  have  been  vio- 
lated by  the  building  of  apartment  houses  out  to  the  sidewalk. 
Gradually  the  extension  of  conduits  protects  residence  districts 
from  poles  and  wires.  This  is  done  primarily  for  economy  or 
safety.     The  law  is  still  impervious  to  aesthetic  considerations. 

Cities  have  legislated  successfully  against  noise  on  health 
grounds,  but  the  eye  remains  unprotected. 

Billboards 

The  greatest  intrusion  on  residential  privacy  is  the  billboard. 
Most  billboard  legislation  has  been  declared  unconstitutional. 
The  history  of  the  agitation  against  billboards  reveals  an  in- 
teresting growth  of  public  sentiment  and  its  reflection  in  a  skillful 
accommodation  to  legal  precedent.  Chicago  was  early  in  the 
field  with  a  law  restricting  billboards  on  the  ground  that  they 

»  See  pp.  331,  332- 


CITY   PLANNING  349 

were  objectionable  to  property  owners  or  residents.  Appeal 
to  the  courts  showed  that  "  the  good  old  English  law"  —  always 
a  decade  to  a  millennium  behind  civilization  —  did  not  recog- 
nize aesthetic  emotions.  It  was  difficult  to  prove  that  a  bill- 
board was  obscene  and  the  law  did  not  recognize  the  objection 
that  the  sign  might  be  nauseating.  The  court  decided  that  if 
the  billboard  might  conceal  thugs  or  sources  of  disease  or  set 
fire  to  property  or  be  blown  down  and  destroy  life  it  came 
within  the  survey  of  the  law.  So  Chicago  and  other  cities  have 
passed  laws  requiring  billboards  to  have  an  open  space  below 
them  and  at  the  side  and  demanding  that  they  be  secure.  New 
York  City  leads  in  requiring  fireproof  billboards  and  braces  with 
a  wind  resistance  equal  to  their  needs,  measured  by  their  size 
and  height  above  the  ground. 

It  has  also  been  found  in  New  York  that  electric  signs  may 
be  regulated  if  they  interfere  with  sleep  during  the  few  hours 
when  New  Yorkers  are  not  awake. 

New  Jersey  has  had  some  fruitless  experimentation  in  taxing 
billboards.  The  court's  instinct  for  property  has  nearly  always 
been  keener  than  its  comprehension  of  civilization.  Using  his- 
toric police  or  health  powers  a  pubhc  official  can  sometimes 
secure  justice  in  spite  of  the  ancient  law.  The  tax  assessors  of 
Medford,  Massachusetts,  tax  billboards  as  real  estate,  valuing 
them  at  the  cost  of  construction.  This  precedent  has  not  been 
followed  by  the  assessors  of  the  other  Boston  suburbs,  who  have 
generally  admitted  their  subservience  to  property  owners. 

A  fight  has  been  waged  in  St.  Louis  for  years  to  find  a  law 
that  the  court  would  recognize  as  constitutional.  An  ordinance 
passed  in  1905  was  sustained  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Missouri 
in  1914.  The  companies  that  had  fought  every  restriction  by 
all  known  methods  withdrew  their  appeal  to  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  because  that  would  have  embarrassed  their 
colleagues  in  other  states.  The  ordinance  was  a  very  modest 
one,  considering  the  blight  that  billboards  cast  upon  neighbor- 
hoods. It  limited  the  area  of  the  billboards  to  500  square  feet, 
their  height  to  14  feet,  and  length  to  50  feet.  Upon  the  render- 
ing of  the  decision  the  companies  did  their  utmost  to  have  the 
ordinance  repealed  by  the  St.  Louis  Councils.  Two  hundred 
and  fifty  existing  billboards  were  doomed  by  this  law. 

The  men  who  make  their  incomes  from  billboards  may  be 


350  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

honest,  but  they  are  no  more  susceptible  to  the  claims  of  civili- 
zation than  the  nation  that  holds  treaties  in  contempt. 

Chicago  has  served  the  cause  of  civilization  versus  the  adver- 
tising Huns  and  Vandals  by  fighting  to  a  supreme  court  decision 
a  law  that  lets  the  property  owner  decide  whether  the  billboard 
injures  his  property.  The  Chicago  ordinance  that  has  sup- 
planted their  previous  vain  endeavors  prohibits  the  construc- 
tion of  billboards  in  a  block  in  which  one-half  of  the  buildings 
on  both  sides  are  used  exclusively  for  residences,  without  first 
obtaining  written  consent  of  a  majority  of  the  owners  of  the 
street  frontage. 

Local  option  wins  when  the  taste  of  the  people  is  not  yet 
educated  up  to  enforce  prohibition. 

Recreation 

The  ideal  of  municipal  recreation  is  a  playground  within  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  of  every  child  and  an  acre  of  park  to  each 
fifty  people.  The  standard  already  within  reach  is  a  playground 
(including  gymnasium,  swimming  bath,  athletic  field,  and  as- 
sembly hall)  within  a  half-mile  of  every  citizen,  a  social  center 
in  every  neighborhood,  a  municipal  theater  (or  at  least  a  motion- 
picture  show),  and  a  rural  park  within  the  radius  of  a  single  car 
fare.  The  two  chief  purposes  of  recreation  are  healthful  amuse- 
ment and  team  play.  It  is  therefore  an  indispensable  element 
in  the  city  plan.^ 

Recreation  is  not  merely  play.  Re-creation  comes  from 
diversity  of  occupation  relieving  fatigue.  Monotony  and  ugli- 
ness in  a  city  lay  a  burden  on  the  people  of  which  they  are  not 
conscious.  Orderliness,  architectural  beauty,  verdure,  vistas, 
diverting  monuments  and  scenes  make  life  easier  and  more 
gracious.  The  city  subtly  recreates  its  population  when  it  is 
planned  for  their  convenience  and  enjoyment. 

The  comprehensive  city  plan  is  more  important  for  recreation 
and  rejuvenation  than  any  form  of  public  amusement. 

Typical  City  Plans 

Prosaic  William  Penn  in  Philadelphia  and  the  triumvirate 
that  laid  out  Washington,  D.C.,  —  Washington,  Jefferson  and 
»  See  Chapters  XIV,  XV,  XVI. 


CITY    PLANNING  35 1 

L'Enfant,  —  are  the  predecessors  of  American  city  planners. 
Washington  is  the  model  city  and  will  probably  remain  unrivaled 
while  men  travel  chiefly  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Under 
the  spell  of  the  newly  achieved  separation  of  legislative  and 
executive  functions  in  the  Federal  Constitution,  President 
Washington  wanted  this  conception  embodied  in  the  capital 
city.  L'Enfant  located  the  Capitol  on  an  eminence  facing  the 
dawn  and  placed  the  President's  house  a  mile  back  of  it,  con- 
nected by  a  great  thoroughfare  —  Pennsylvania  Avenue.  The 
capital  city's  functions  were  to  be  dignified  also  by  a  park  run- 
ning on  the  axes  of  these  buildings,  and  at  their  junction  was  to 
be  located  the  Washington  Monument.  From  each  building 
the  great  avenues  would  radiate  Uke  the  spokes  from  the  hub  of 
a  wheel.  The  minor  street  system  was  to  be  rectangular,  afford- 
ing abundant  opportunity  for  ornamentation  of  the  city  at  the 
street  intersections. 

This  plan  is  fundamentally  responsible  for  Washington's 
beauty  and  convenience  to-day. 

The  pygmies  of  the  nineteenth  century  could  not  grasp  it, 
and  so  the  Washington  Monument  was  put  a  little  out  of  focus, 
the  treasury  building  was  so  built  as  to  obstruct  the  view  from 
the  White  House  to  the  Capitol,  and  a  railway  station  of  in- 
credible hideousness  was  planted  on  the  beautiful  Mall  between 
the  Capitol  and  the  Washington  Monument.  It  took  great 
courage  to  return  to  the  majestic  original  plan,  but  the  com- 
mission created  in  1900,  on  the  centennial  of  the  establishment 
of  Washington,  has  gone  back  religiously  to  first  principles. 
D.  H.  Burnham,  chairman  of  the  commission,  even  rid  the  Mall 
of  the  railway  station  and  gave  Washington  an  ideal  railway 
entrance.^  The  new  public  buildings  are  being  located  appro- 
priately about  the  Capitol  and  along  the  Mall. 

The  plan  of  Washington  fits  its  functions  like  the  human 
anatomy. 

New  York  City  had  its  first  plan  made  by  a  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  council  in  1807.  The  plan,  beginning  with 
the  irregular  village  streets  at  the  lower  end  of  Manhattan 
Island,  extended  to  155th  Street.  The  commissioners  had  faith 
that  the  city  would  contain  400,000  people  in  fifty  years.  It  did 
contain  twice  that  number.     The  naivete  of  these  men,  whose 

'  See  pp.  13-15. 


352  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

vision  reached  to  the  hills  beyond  Harlem  flats,  is  revealed  in 
their  confession :  The  gridiron  plan  was  adopted  because  a  city 
is  "composed  principally  of  the  habitations  of  men,  and  because 
straight  sided  and  right  angled  houses  are  the  most  cheap  to 
build,  and  the  most  convenient  to  live  in." 

What  would  the  commissioners  have  thought  of  their  succes- 
sors a  century  later  who  built  a  circular  court  house ! 

It  was  not  until  1914  that  a  City  Plan  Committee  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment.  The 
intermediate  authorities  had  not  seriously  altered  the  plans 
adopted  in  1807  for  Manhattan  Island.  The  other  boroughs 
had  grown  together  by  natural  accretion.  Since  the  adoption 
of  the  Greater  New  York  Charter  there  had  been  no  movement 
for  unification  except  by  underground  transit.  The  City  Plan 
Committee  has  correlation  as  its  function,  but  is  subordinate 
in  authority  to  nearly  thirty  city  and  borough  departments. 
The  committee  is  wisely  setting  its  staff  to  work  investigating 
the  movement  of  population,  time  and  fare  zones,  congestion, 
vacant  land,  water  front,  and  other  fundamental  problems, 
tabulating  and  charting  their  results.  The  committee  in  1914 
presented  a  report,  "Development  and  Present  Status  of  City 
Planning  in  New  York  City."  This  report  is  an  admirable 
scientific  and  diplomatic  presentation  of  the  complex  problem 
of  city  planning.  It  shows  the  failures  of  past  ignorance  and 
the  diflftculty  of  coordinating  the  various  movements  that  have 
sprung  up  in  the  latter  years  to  redeem  earUer  blunders.  Since 
the  beginning  of  1902  five  millions  have  been  spent  in  New  York 
mapping  out  the  undeveloped  areas.  In  1903  the  Improvement 
Commission  was  created,  and  five  years  later  they  reported 
various  magnificent  projects  involving  in  all  a  cost  of  nearly 
$80,000,000.  A  few  of  these,  like  the  widening  of  Fifth  Avenue 
and  the  extension  of  Seventh  Avenue,  have  been  completed. 

In  191 2  a  separate  study  of  Brooklyn  was  made  by  E.  H. 
Bennett  for  a  committee  of  citizens.  Manhattan's  dormitory 
is  very  much  awake. 

The  transcontinental  railways  unified  the  United  States. 
Only  unified  transportation  can  make  New  York  a  unit.  Rapid 
transit  may  be  said  to  be  momentarily  determined,  but  the 
latest  solution  does  not  touch  other  traffic  difficulties,  and  their 
settlement  involves  city  and  state  commissions  and  courts^ 


CITY   PLANNING  353 

The  functions  of  the  dock  department  are  so  extensive  that 
various  civic  bodies  have  more  or  less  officiously  endeavored  to 
assist.  Over  fifty  reports  have  been  issued  regarding  the 
problems  of  the  west  side  of  Manhattan  alone.  Parks  and  public 
buildings  depend  upon  the  Art  Commission,  the  Heights  of 
Buildings  Commission,  and  taxing  bodies  of  the  various  city 
departments.  The  City  Plan  Committee  can  do  little  more  at 
present  than  create  public  sentiment. 

A  small  city  under  commission  government  would  do  well  to 
heed  New  York's  warning :  make  one  commissioner  responsible 
and  see  to  it  that  he  is  a  Napoleon  III. 

Other  cities  beside  Washington  and  New  York  tried  to  plan 
extensions  during  the  nineteenth  century,  but  the  movement 
for  scientific  city  planning  needed  a  more  powerful  impulse. 
This  came  in  the  spectacular  achievement  of  the  Chicago  World's 
Fair  in  1893.  At  one  of  the  meetings  of  architects  and  artists 
to  discuss  their  plans  and  harmonize  them  by  mutual  concession, 
Augustus  St.  Gaudens  is  said  to  have  remarked  to  D.  H.  Burn- 
ham,  "Do  you  know  that  this  is  the  greatest  meeting  of  artists 
since  the  Renaissance  ?  " 

There  began  at  Chicago  a  renascence  that  has  expressed 
itself  in  every  exposition  since  then,  from  Buffalo  to  San  Diego 
and  San  Francisco.  The  making  of  these  play  cities  showed  the 
way  to  the  real  cities.  Almost  every  municipal  function  was 
better  performed  because  coordinated  in  a  comprehensive 
scheme.  Street  paving  and  cleaning,  water  supply,  sewage  dis- 
posal, garbage  and  refuse  removal,  fire,  police  and  health  pro- 
tection have  been  performed  at  the  dictates  of  science,  not  of 
bosses.  Chicago  immediately  inspired  Cleveland's  civic  center. 
Other  cities  began  to  feel  the  spell  of  the  Court  of  Honor.  In 
the  course  of  the  next  decade  the  time  had  grown  ripe  for  city 
plans.  Still  the  early  impulses  were  aesthetic;  municipal  art 
commissions,  not  interfering  with  franchises  and  vested  interests, 
made  the  opening  wedge  for  city  plan  commissions. 

Primitive  man  decorates  himself  before  science  arrives. 

The  chief  beneficiary  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition 
was  naturally  Chicago.  It  started  at  once  to  elevate  its  rail- 
way tracks  and  expand  its  park  system.  There  was  no  plan 
worthy  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Fair  until  the  Commercial  Club 
put  forth  the  Burnham  and  Bennett  plans.     These  are  the 

2A 


354  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

most  ambitious  plans  projected  by  a  twentieth-century  city. 
Their  ke}Tiote  is  reverence  for  the  lake.  A  semicircular  harbor 
is  to  be  built  off  Grant  Park.  This  central  park,  that  has  been 
made  out  of  nothing,  is  to  be  the  gateway  of  the  city.  Westward 
is  to  stretch  the  city's  main  artery,  into  which  will  pour  the  sub- 
sidiary arteries.  At  the  corner  of  Twelfth  and  Halsted  streets 
is  to  be  the  civic  center,  projected  on  the  scale  of  the  Place  de 
la  Concorde,  Paris.  Halsted  Street  is  in  fact  the  longest  street 
in  the  world,  and  the  slum  neighborhood  chosen  for  the  civic 
center  is  about  the  population  center  of  the  city. 

Kansas  City  first  showed  America  that  a  slum  is  the  logical 
location  for  a  boulevard. 

Other  great  arteries  needed  for  this  gigantic  scheme  are 
already  being  developed.  Michigan  Avenue  and  Twelfth  Street 
are  being  widened  at  an  expense  of  $9,750,000.^  A  three  million 
dollar  municipal  pier  diverts  trafBc  from  the  congested  river  to 
the  new  harbor  in  the  lake.  The  lake  front  can  most  happily 
be  made  the  finest  water  entrance  in  the  world  because  a  line 
of  sand  bars,  on  which  Chicago's  refuse  can  be  dumped,  urgently 
invites  an  outer  boulevard. 

Nothing  in  this  200  million  dollar  scheme  is  Utopian  if  done 
deliberately. 

Municipal  Art  Commissions 

Nearly  a  decade  before  the  advent  of  the  city  plan  commis- 
sion. New  York  and  Boston  had  established  municipal  art  com- 
missions (1898).  New  York's  commission  has  been  very  active 
within  its  limited  powers.  These  organizations  have  been  imi- 
tated in  other  cities,  and  there  are  now  several  varieties  of  art 
commissions,  including  a  Federal  commission  for  Washington 
and  two  state  commissions.  The  individualism  that  has  made 
American  cities  hideous  yields  reluctantly  to  any  communal 
control.  When  this  involves  an  unknown  quality,  like  the 
aesthetic,  the  advance  steps  are  seldom  venturesome.  The  art 
commission  is  at  best  tentative,  its  functions  meeting  with 
greater  recognition  when  incorporated  in  the  more  utilitarian 
city  plan  commission. 

The  most  timid  of  the  art  commissions  is  that  of  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  that  is  given  advisory  power  to  the  city  council. 

*  See  p.  336. 


Photograph  by  Kostmann.  Weimer  and  Faber  Co. 

Chicago's  Boul  Mich,  the  Best  Lighted  Street  in  America. 


CITY    PLANNING  355 

Baltimore,  Denver,  Milwaukee,  New  Haven  and  Saint  Louis 
are  given  the  veto  on  public  decorations.  Milwaukee  is  assured 
an  appropriation  of  $100  a  year !  Boston,  Chicago  and  Min- 
neapolis have  added  authority  over  private  obstructions  in  the 
streets,  when  requested  to  use  it  by  the  city  council.  The 
Chicago  commission  is  given  an  appropriation.  Los  Angeles, 
Mount  Vernon  (New  York),  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Pitts- 
burgh exercise  the  same  authority  over  private  street  obstruc- 
tions as  over  public  monuments  and  improvements.  They  are 
also  provided  with  funds.  The  powers  of  the  Pittsburgh  com- 
mission are  larger  than  those  of  any  of  the  others.  The  law  of 
191 1  says: 

"It  is  among  the  puqDoses  of  this  act  to  secure,  so  far  as  may  be  reason- 
ably practicable,  the  free  light,  air  and  prospect  of  the  streets  and  open  spaces 
of  the  city,  and  to  prevent  the  obstruction  of  the  same  by  unsightly  struc- 
tures, though  lawfully  erected,  and  for  that  purpose  the  art  commission  is 
authorized  to  devise,  and  recommend  for  adoption  by  ordinance  of  councils, 
such  designs  and  regulations  as  may  tend  to  prevent  the  unsightly  occupa- 
tion of  such  streets  and  open  spaces,  and,  so  far  as  may  be  practicable,  to 
promote  the  beautification  of  such  streets  and  open  spaces. 

"The  commission  may  volunteer  advice  or  suggestion  to  the  owners  of 
private  property  in  relation  to  the  beautification  of  the  same;  and  any 
citizen  or  person,  who  may  be  about  to  erect  any  building  or  make  any 
improvement  may  submit  the  plans  and  designs  thereof  to  the  art  commis- 
sion for  advice  and  suggestion.  And  the  art  commission  may  receive  and 
act  upon  the  complaints  and  suggestions  of  citizens  or  voluntary  associa- 
tions having  such  objects  and  purposes  in  view  as  are  aforesaid  ;  and  in  acting 
upon  the  recommendations  of  the  art  commission  the  councils  of  the  city 
may  make  full  exercise  of  the  police  power,  by  ordinance." 

Los  Angeles  and  Yonkers  make  provision  for  women  in  the 
membership  of  their  commissions. 

City  Surveys 

Preliminary  to  a  city  plan  some  cities  have  had  the  wisdom 
or  good  fortune  to  secure  a  city  survey.  An  investigation  of  all 
the  social  and  industrial  conditions  of  a  city  is  invaluable  to 
the  city  planner.  Too  often  the  city  plan  is  looked  upon  as  a 
piece  of  draughtsmanship  leading  to  parks  and  other  public 
improvements,  without  due  respect  for  the  problems  growing 
out  of  unguided  city  growth.  Sometimes  a  city  has  the  wisdom 
to  survey  itself  as  Topeka  has  done. 


356  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

Kansas  is  still  profiting  by  that  memorable  query,  "What  is 
the  matter  with  Kansas?" 

Sometimes  the  impartial  expert,  assisting  public-spirited  citi- 
zens, arouses  great  antagonism  by  telling  a  city  the  truth  about 
itself.  Pittsburgh,  Springfield  (Illinois)  and  Lawrence  (Massa- 
chusetts) have  been  turned  inside  out  by  Russell  Sage  Fund 
explorers,  who  have  performed  incalculable  services,  for  which 
the  people  are  not  yet  grateful.  The  Pittsburgh  Survey  estab- 
lishes a  new  standard  of  local  knowledge.  Its  six  volumes  have 
covered  in  detail  the  chief  industries  and  the  environment  of 
workers  in  the  Pittsburgh  district. 

Pittsburgh  is  in  a  better  position  to  make  a  scientific  city 
plan  than  any  other  city. 

Municipal  Plan  Commissions 

A  plan  drawn  by  an  expert  and  adopted  by  a  city  is  the  best 
paying  investment  it  can  possibly  make.  Most  city  plans  have 
been  made  by  voluntary  enthusiasts,  who  had  the  help  of  the 
public  opinion  of  the  community,  but  were  often  unappreciated 
by  the  city  authorities.  These  plans  have  dealt  largely  with 
aesthetic  improvements  that  commended  themselves  to  the  nice 
people  who  furnished  the  money  for  the  investigation.  The 
municipal  plan  commission  is  the  ofl&cial  recognition  of  the 
science  of  city  planning.  Hartford  appointed  such  a  commis- 
sion in  1907.  There  were  nearly  a  hundred  such  commissions  in 
1 9 14,  and  many  more  cities  were  using  voluntary  agencies  to 
make  city  plans.  The  propaganda  of  the  Massachusetts  Home- 
stead Cormnission  has  made  city  plan  commissions  general  in 
that  state. 

A  report  of  E.  P.  Goodrich  and  G.  B.  Ford,  suggesting  a  plan 
of  procedure  for  the  City  Plan  Commission  of  Jersey  City,  is 
an  invaluable  document  for  the  guidance  of  all  those  who  are 
conducting  city  surveys  or  making  city  plans.^  The  proposals 
of  Messrs.  Goodrich  and  Ford  are  scientific,  economical  and 
democratic.  Their  letter  of  September  19,  1912,  suggesting  the 
scope  of  their  inquiries,  was  followed  in  detail  in  the  report  and 
is  an  invaluable  analysis  of  the  municipal  functions  within  the 
scope  of  both  a  city  survey  and  a  city  plan.     It  comprehends: 

*  Newark's  Municipal  Plan  Commission  established  the  precedent  for  Jersey  City, 


CITY   PLANNING  357 

.  .  "(i)  Street  traffic  —  vehicular  and  pedestrian;  (2)  transit  lines 
and  possibilities  of  re-scheduling  and  re-routing ;  (3)  grading  and  surfacing 
of  streets;  (4)  width  of  roadways  and  sidewalks;  (5)  widening  of  present 
streets  and  cutting  through  of  new  streets;  (6)  use  of  the  water  front; 
(7)  factory  development  of  certain  districts ;  (8)  food ;  (9)  water  supply ; 
(10)  sewage  and  garbage  disposal ;  (i  1)  housing  in  all  its  aspects;  (12)  treat- 
ment of  congestion  and  unsanitary  conditions;  (13)  methods  of  laying  out 
new  districts  so  as  to  give  the  best  future  housing  development  of  the  city ; 
(14)  resultant  effects  on  real  estate  values  and  tax  rates;  (15)  laws  pertain- 
ing to  housing;  (16)  recreation  in  connection  with  parks,  playgrounds, 
streets,  schools,  social  centers,  especially  with  regard  to  the  various  classes 
and  nationalities  in  the  community;  (17)  development  of  parks  and  park 
systems,  connecting  boulevards;  (18)  planting  on  the  various  streets  of  the 
city;  (19)  grouping  of  public  buildings;  (20)  embellishing  bridges,  quays, 
monuments,  fountains,  statuary;  (21)  placing  of  shelters  and  street  signs, 
street  lighting,  trolley  and  telegraph  poles,  public  comfort  stations,  etc.; 
(22)  laws  relating  to  city  planning;  (23)  restriction,  smoke  abatement, 
billboard  regulation;  (24)  method  of  paying  for  public  improvements, 
including  excess  condemnation,  unearned  increment,  assessing  of  abutters, 
municipal  ownership,  etc. ;  (25)  conducting  of  surveys  in  line  with  these 
methods  of  securing  the  cooperation  of  local,  public  and  private  organiza- 
tions ;  (26)  how  to  follow  up  this  work  and  how  to  get  results ; "  .  .  . 

Jersey  City  presents  peculiarly  difficult  problems.  It  is  under 
the  shadow  of  the  metropolis  of  the  country.  It  is  hemmed  in 
by  its  eastern  water  front,  almost  altogether  appropriated  by 
private  interests,  and  the  marshes  on  the  west  that  divide 
Jersey  City  from  Newark.  It  is  a  subordinate  and  dependent 
city,  like  East  St.  Louis  or  Newport,  Kentucky,  without  the 
independent  political  history  of  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  or  Oak- 
land, California.  The  way  it  has  gone  to  the  root  in  organizing 
a  strictly  municipal  city  plan  commission  is  one  of  the  most 
hopeful  signs  of  municipal  advance. 

Why  be  the  doormat  of  the  metropolis  when  it  is  possible  to 
be  the  vestibule? 

City  Plans  Paying  for  Themselves 

The  Baltimore  system  of  taking  a  percentage  of  the  street 
railway  receipts  for  parks  is  a  method  of  relieving  the  taxpayer 
by  securing  revenue  from  the  street  railway  patrons.  The 
company  makes  it  up  in  the  patronage  of  the  parks.  The  Den- 
ver method  of  charging  up  half  of  the  cost  of  public  music  to 
the  street  railway  company  is  another  means  of  letting  the 


358  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

straphanger  provide  park  entertainment  for  himself.  Parks 
frequent h-  pay  for  themselves  out  of  increased  taxes,  even  though 
the  property  owners  benefit  by  the  unearned  increment.  In 
Madison,  Wisconsin,  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  enhanced 
value  of  land  adjoining  parks  has  brought  in  an  additional 
$10,000.  The  land  bordering  Boston's  Fenway  was  worth  less 
than  S5000  an  acre  before  the  parkway  was  laid  out.  It  is  now 
said  to  be  worth  more  than  $85,000.  If  Central  Park,  New 
York,  that  cost  five  or  six  millions,  is  now  estimated  at  200 
millions,  how  much  has  it  added  to  the  contiguous  property? 

The  chief  endeavors  to  assess  park  costs  on  the  beneficiaries 
are  park  assessments  and  excess  condemnation.  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  assesses  the  whole  cost  of  parks  on  land  benefited. 
In  1908  the  city  was  divided  into  six  park  districts.  One  park 
at  least  was  to  be  provided  in  each  district.  Land  outside  the 
city  was  to  be  bought  by  general  taxation  or  bond  issues.  The 
best  park  and  boulevard  system  in  the  west  has  been  paid  for 
out  of  the  unearned  increment. 

Every  worthy  citizen  prefers  to  pay  his  way. 

European  cities  have  had  a  great  advantage  over  American 
cities  in  their  power  to  condemn  more  land  than  needed  for 
public  improvements  and  then  sell  at  advanced  prices,  making 
the  increased  values  pay  for  the  improvement.  That  method 
has  been  constitutionally  difficult  in  America.  It  has  been 
almost  impossible  to  alienate  public  property  because  of  the 
fetish  of  protecting  the  right  of  private  speculation.  The  Su- 
preme Court  of  Pennsylvania  has  declared  the  excess  condem- 
nation law  of  1907  unconstitutional.  Ohio,  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia permit  land  to  be  taken  to  protect  existing  possessions. 
Massachusetts,  New  York  and  Wisconsin  have  amended  their 
constitutions  to  permit  the  taking  of  excess  land  with  the  pur- 
pose of  selling  building  lots  adjoining  parks  and  public  places. 
Wisconsin  allows  the  land  to  be  sold  with  restrictions  guarantee- 
ing the  protection  of  the  improvement.  The  Connecticut  law 
of  1907  sets  no  limit  to  the  land  that  may  be  acquired.  Conserv- 
ative Connecticut  at  last  puts  us  abreast  of  Europe  in  attach- 
ing more  importance  to  the  citizen  than  to  the  speculator. 

The  best  fruit  of  America's  large  crop  of  city  plans  is  the  dis- 
covery of  the  necessity  of  excess  condemnation  and  the  appro- 
priation of  the  social  increment  of  land  values. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
MUNICIPAL    OWNERSHIP  1 

The  municipality  is  an  organization  of  consumers.  It  in- 
cludes all  the  people  in  its  political  area,  whether  they  vote  or 
not,  for  all  of  them  pay  taxes,  directly  or  indirectly,  for  the  satis- 
faction of  their  communal  wants.  The  consumer  pays  all  the 
bills  (including  taxes)  of  landlords,  storekeepers,  manufacturers 
and  laborers,  and  in  his  capacity  as  citizen  votes  for  the  organi- 
zation which  supplies  his  public  needs.  It  is  not  possible  to  un- 
derstand municipal  government,  or  do  justice  to  it,  until  we  rec- 
ognize that  it  is  not  a  political  incident  in  the  busy  life  of  an  in- 
dustrial community ;  it  is  not  an  institution  for  the  perpetuation 
of  graft,  nor,  of  necessity,  an  aggregation  of  sinecures ;  neither 
is  it  an  eleemosynary  foundation  for  the  gift  of  franchises.  It  is 
the  indispensable  method  of  organizing  the  common  life  of  the 
geographical  region  defined  by  the  municipahty. 

The  city  is  "the  hope  of  democracy"  not  because  it  is  an  or- 
ganization of  parties  or  workers ;  it  is  an  organization  of  neigh- 
bors. 

Communal  Wants 

The  questions  which  naturally  arise  after  a  survey  of  American 
municipal  activities  are:  Do  these  activities  satisfy  communal 
wants,  and  are  the  means  subordinate  to  the  ends?  When  one 
saw  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  financial  and  physical  domi- 
nance in  municipal  affairs  of  the  transportation  systems,  or  wit- 
nessed the  encroachment  on  the  life  of  the  citizens  of  ill-paved 
and  unclean  streets,  or  observed  streets  frequently  torn  up  to 
make  place  for  wires  and  pipes  of  various  kinds,  or  was  op- 
pressed by  too  frequent  vistas  of  a  miscellaneous  collection  of 
telegraph,  telephone,  electric  light,  gas  and  trolley  poles  and 
standards,  to  say  nothing  of  the  ubiquitous  signboard,  one  was 

'  The  acute  reader  will  have  noticed  that  the  whole  volume  deals  with  nothing 
but  municipal  ownership. 

359 


360  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

inclined  to  wonder  when  the  preparations  were  to  be  completed 
and  life  was  to  begin.  The  discontent  of  tJie  citizen  increased 
when  he  saw  public  officials  serving  the  corporations  at  the  ex- 
pense of  their  constituents,  health  commissioners  more  solicitous 
for  the  landlord  than  for  the  tenant,  smoke  inspectors  dereUct 
in  duty  while  influential  manufacturers  and  railway  officials 
ignore  the  well-being  of  the  community,  pubUc  library  trustees 
accepting  benefactions  designed  for  the  public  and  then  restrict- 
ing the  use  to  a  favored  few,  school  board  members  resenting 
advice  given  to  them  by  the  public  which  paid  for  the  schools, 
or  park  commissioners  instructed  to  provide  playgrounds  for  the 
children  but  possessed  by  an  infatuation  for  grass.  It  is  most 
encouraging  to  find,  in  spite  of  the  continued  assertiveness  of 
some  of  the  pubUc  service  corporations  and  the  failure  of  some 
of  the  municipal  departments  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  com- 
munity, that  there  has  been  a  most  notable  development  in  the 
extension  of  municipal  functions  and  their  efficient  performance. 
"The  best  government  is  that  which  governs  least"  but  serves 
most. 

The  more  compact  the  population,  the  more  economical  and 
necessary  are  collective  activities.  Misgovernment  under  these 
circumstances  is  due  to  the  imperfect  education  of  the  people 
and  the  large  rewards  of  exploitation.  In  the  United  States 
maladministration  has  been  popularly  associated  with  the 
larger  cities.  In  fact,  however,  it  only  becomes  conspicuous 
there  because  the  amount  of  expenditure  is  so  great.  The 
power  of  government  increases  in  direct  ratio  with  density  of 
population.  As  a  city  grows  economy  of  large  purchases  and  pro- 
cesses leads  to  the  increasing  municipalization  of  activities.  A 
city's  credit,  even  under  misgovernment,  is  greater  than  that 
of  any  private  corporation.  With  good  pubHc  administration 
neither  private  monopoly  nor  private  competition  can  achieve 
the  economy  of  municipal  management. 

Municipal  ownership  succeeds  wherever  it  is  not  opposed  by 
business  men  and  the  press. 

The  Hypnotized  Business  Man 

Increasing  wants  are  the  cause  and  measure  of  civilization. 
As  the  wants  of  the  people  multiply  and  diversify,  industry  and 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  361 

civilization  progress.  These  wants  are  both  individual  and  social, 
and  the  collective  wants  are  best  satisfied  through  public  organi- 
zation. Most  of  the  communal  wants  are  unremunerative 
and  consequently  have  graciously  been  turned  over  to  the 
municipality  by  those  who  conduct  the  profitable  enterprises. 
In  American  cities  the  latter  generally  include  transportation 
and  communication,  lighting,  power  and  heating,  and  sometimes 
water  and  markets.  The  struggle  to  possess  these  privileges  has 
been  akin  to  the  strategy  of  war.  The  spirit  generated  has,  like 
the  war  spirit,  distorted  values,  destroyed  all  sense  of  propor- 
tion. The  unremunerative  enterprises  have  not  been  immune. 
They  too  have  been  sacrificed  as  non-combatants  are  in  the  fury 
of  war.  Big  business  men  in  Chicago  are  trying  to  undermine 
the  educational  system  by  organizing  vocational  education  sepa- 
rate from  the  city  school  system,  making  it  amenable  to  capitalistic 
bias.  Business  men  through  their  corrupt  political  boss  emascu- 
lated the  social  center  system  of  Rochester.  The  business  in- 
terests of  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Denver,  San  Francisco  and  a 
host  of  other  cities  have  lined  up  with  lawless  corporations 
against  the  community.  They  have  identified  themselves  with 
highwaymen  like  C.  T.  Yerkes  and  Pat  Calhoun  who  have  robbed 
even  these  business  dupes.  They  have  made  it  difficult  for  pub- 
lic servants  to  perform  the  most  neutral  services  just  as  scholars 
and  savants  have  surrendered  their  principles  at  the  behest  of 
the  military  reactionaries. 

The  same  business  men  who  scorned  Tom  Johnson  succumbed 
to  Cassie  Chadwick ! 

Few  American  cities  are  without  their  experience  with  blind 
opposition  from  business  men,  dead  or  moribund.  The  munici- 
palization of  street  railways  was  held  up  in  Chicago  and  de- 
layed in  Cleveland  and  Detroit  by  men  who  had  no  financial 
interest  to  serve  and  who  knew  no  more  about  municipal  owner- 
ship than  they  know  about  the  causes  of  the  European  war. 
Grave  obstacles  were  interposed  by  men  long  dead  whose  anti- 
quated ideas  had  been  carefully  embalmed  in  constitutions  and 
franchises.  The  unqualified  success  of  Boston's  municipal  sub- 
way has  been  repeatedly  threatened  by  the  railway  lobbyists 
supported  by  Boston's  highest  Brahman  set.  If  it  had  not  been 
for  patriotic  Jews  guiding  the  Franchise  League,  the  Puritan 
would  have  sapped  Boston  worse  than  he  has.     The  Hamilton, 


362  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Ohio,  municipal  gas  works  had  years  of  the  most  sinister  antag- 
onism. The  Pasadena  electric  plant  was  threatened  until  Cali- 
fornia passed  a  law  forbidding  a  private  corporation's  lowering 
rates  in  one  city  while  maintaining  them  where  there  was  no  com- 
petition. 

Sometimes  those  who  rock  the  boat  go  down  with  their  victims. 

The  "awful  example"  of  the  public  utility  propagandists  is 
the  Philadelphia  gas  works.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  lease 
of  the  Philadelphia  gas  works  to  a  private  company  indicates 
the  failure  of  municipal  ownership.  The  Philadelphia  experience 
is,  in  fact,  the  most  powerful  argument  for  the  restriction  of  the 
power  of  corporations  ever  presented  in  America. 

Philadelphia  has  owned  portions  of  the  gas  supply  since  1841, 
as  a  consequence  of  the  inefficiency  of  the  private  corporations 
then  supplying  gas.  The  price  of  gas  at  that  time  was  $3.50  a 
thousand  cubic  feet.  The  control  of  the  gas  supply  was  put  into 
the  hands  of  a  board  of  trustees,  known  as  the  Philadelphia  Gas 
Trust.  The  management  was  never  satisfactory,  and  there 
were  many  evidences  of  extravagant  expenditure.  Frequent 
efforts  were  made  to  place  the  control  in  the  hands  of  the  City 
Council.  As  a  consequence  of  these  efforts  offers  were  made  by 
private  parties  to  lease  the  plant,  for  twenty-five  years,  at  a  rental 
of  one  million  dollars  per  year.  Other  offers  were  made  for  pur- 
chase. Public  opinion,  however,  prevented  either  of  these  ac- 
tions. Direct  control  of  the  gas  works  by  the  people  was  not 
secured  until  1887.  In  spite  of  corruption  and  extravagance 
the  price  of  gas  had  been  repeatedly  reduced  until  it  was  sold 
for  $1  a  thousand  cubic  feet,  when  the  city  parted  with  the 
works. 

In  the  year  1896  the  reconstruction  of  the  gas  works  was  con- 
templated, and  the  mayor,  the  Director  of  Public  Works,  and 
the  two  branches  of  the  City  Council  seized  the  opportunity  to 
express  their  approval  of  municipal  ownership,  and  condemna- 
tion of  private  monopoly.  The  following  year  the  Councils 
passed  an  ordinance,  leasing  the  gas  works  to  the  United  Gas 
Improvement  Company  for  less  than  the  sum  offered  by  any 
other  bidder,  and  the  mayor  signed  the  ordinance.  The  most 
favorable  offer  would  have  secured  to  the  city  during  the  Hfe  of 
the  franchise  ten  miUion  dollars  more  than  was  secured  by  the 
offer  accepted. 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  363 

No  one  can  question  the  superior  management  of  the  United 
Gas  Improvement  Company,  but  the  effect  of  the  lease  was  to 
confirm  the  method  by  which  it  was  secured.  The  people  barely 
frustrated  a  similar  attempt  to  let  the  water  works  depreciate 
so  that  public  opinion  would  sanction  their  lease  to  local  capital- 
ists. The  leading  retail  merchants  of  Philadelphia  and  the  press 
combined  to  give  the  street  railway  company  the  few  remaining 
privileges  within  the  gift  of  the  city  in  utter  defiance  of  a  more 
liberal  offer  from  an  unimpeachable  source. 

The  lease  of  tlie  Philadelphia  gas  works  is  the  crowning  episode 
in  the  transformation  of  the  City  of  Brotherly  Love  into  the 
City  of  Brotherly  Loot. 

The  building  of  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct  is  a  triumph  of  pubUc 
ownership  over  private  industry.  There  was  the  usual  fight  to 
wrest  the  privilege  from  the  city,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  water 
works  but  for  the  latent  value  involved  in  the  power  to  be  gen- 
erated over  a  wide  area,  making  land  and  industrial  speculation 
profitable.  Before  the  city  had  developed  its  own  cement  plant 
private  industry  tried  to  charge  it  50  per  cent  too  much  for  ce- 
ment, and  only  the  threat  of  suspension  of  the  enterprise  brought 
the  conspiring  cement  men  to  terms.  In  building  the  Jawbone 
siphon  (7I  by  10  feet,  8136  feet  long)  direct  labor  cost  Los 
Angeles  $700,000  less  than  the  lowest  bid,  and  it  was  built  in  half 
the  time  guaranteed  by  private  enterprise. 

Small  towns  all  over  the  country,  especially  in  the  South, 
which  superstition  holds  to  be  backward,  own  and  operate  eco- 
nomically combined  water  and  light  plants.  Where  big  business 
has  not  a  firm  grip  municipal  ownership  is  comparatively  simple. 

Omaha  versus  Business 

The  city  of  Omaha  struggled  for  sixteen  years  against  a  pri- 
vate company,  court  decisions,  legislative  limitations,  and  sin- 
ister influences  in  the  city  to  secure  municipal  ownership  of  the 
water  supply.  In  1896,  with  its  franchise  having  still  twelve 
years  to  run,  the  Omaha  company  secured  an  extension  from  the 
City  Council.  The  city  engineer,  R.  B.  Howell,  reported  against 
the  franchise,  which  was  vetoed  by  the  mayor.  The  attitude 
of  the  Council  may  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  was  enjoined 
from  passing  the  franchise  over  the  mayor's  veto.     The  follow- 


364  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

ing  year  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  legislature  to  amend  the  city 
charter  so  that  no  franchise  could  be  granted  without  a  vote 
of  the  people.  Nevertheless,  the  new  City  Council  granted  the 
francliise  and  it  was  approved  by  the  new  mayor.  It  was 
subsequently  declared  void  by  the  Supreme  Court.  In  1900  the 
people  voted  almost  unanimously  the  bonds  necessary  to  pur- 
chase the  plant,  but  the  council  refused  to  act.  The  people 
again  had  to  appeal  to  the  legislature  to  command  the  purchase 
of  the  water  plant,  creating  for  this  purpose  the  Omaha  Water 
Board.     The  council  then  acted  and  appraisers  were  appointed. 

The  municipal  ownership  movement  resulted  in  sending  legis- 
lators to  Lincoln  in  1904.  The  following  year  the  legislature 
increased  the  powers  of  the  Water  Board,  removing  from  the  City 
Council  all  authority  over  the  water  supply.  The  appraisers 
valued  the  plant  at  something  over  six  millions,  which  was 
finally  sustained  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
The  city  voted  in  1909  to  issue  bonds  for  six  and  a  half  millions 
to  buy  the  plant.  The  interest  rate  prevented  the  sale  of  the 
bonds  and  new  bonds  were  voted  on  in  July,  191 1.  Fraudulent 
election  practices  defeated  the  vote  for  the  bond  issue,  but 
within  thirty  days  the  proposition  was  resubmitted  and  the 
interest  was  so  intense  that  the  vote  carried  twelve  to  one.  In 
19 13  a  large  part  of  the  income  was  threatened  by  the  packing 
district.  The  legislature  again  had  to  be  appealed  to  and  held 
the  waterworks  intact  by  creating  a  Metropolitan  Water  Dis- 
trict. 

Why  does  big  business  resent  public  efficiency? 

Omaha  now  enjoys  from  the  muddy  Missouri  River  clear  and 
pure  water.  On  purchase  it  reduced  the  rates  one-third,  and 
made  another  5  per  cent  reduction  in  1914.  After  spending  over 
seven  and  a  half  million  dollars  for  the  waterworks  and  exten- 
sions and  setting  aside  for  depreciation  and  sinking  funds 
$650,000,  over  $100,000  was  left  as  a  net  surplus.  The  service 
has  increased  12  per  cent,  while  the  cost  of  operation  under 
public  ownership  is  8  per  cent  less  than  for  the  last  year  under 
private  ownership.  Fighting  against  obstacles  unknown  to 
private  capital,  the  least  sHp  in  the  process  would  have  furnished 
the  pubHc  utility  publicity  bureaus  with  another  indictment 
against  municipal  ownership.^ 

*  See  pp.  360-363. 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  365 

When  soldiers  are  asphyxiated  in  the  trenches  they  are  not 
called  deserters. 

Michigan's  Effete  Constitution 

The  obstructive  business  men  are  often  dead.  The  cities  of 
Michigan  have  had  exceptional  difficulty  in  managing  their  own 
affairs  because  of  the  constitutional  provision  that  has  handi- 
capped Detroit  in  its  endeavor  to  secure  municipal  ownership  of 
the  street  railways.  The  constitution  of  1850  forbade  the  state 
to  be  "party  to  or  interested  in  any  work  of  internal  improve- 
ment." This  was  invoked  against  public  welfare  repeatedly  on 
the  ground  that  municipalities  were  the  creatures  of  the  state  and 
therefore  could  not  undertake  internal  improvements.  This 
constitutional  provision  of  a  past  age  blocked  the  first  attempts 
at  electric  Hghting  in  the  capital  city.  The  electric  lighting  plant 
of  Lansing  has  been  run  with  success  since  the  repeal  of  this  pro- 
vision, but  a  band  of  merry  Robin  Hoods  secured  from  the  legis- 
lature the  right  to  invade  the  city  with  a  competitive  plant 
against  the  will  of  its  authorities. 

Michigan's  new  constitution  is  such  an  advance  on  the  old  that 
the  courts  have  sanctioned  municipal  trading  in  South  Haven, 
which  sells  electrical  appliances. 

The  municipal  gas  plant  of  Ypsilanti  was  inaugurated  in  No- 
vember, 1914.  Three  years  before  that  time  the  gas  company 
asked  for  a  renewal  of  its  franchise  for  thirty  years  because  it 
would  expire  in  two  more.  Municipal  ownership  sentiment  was 
vvidespread  in  Ypsilanti  because  it  had  early  operated  its  water 
and  street  lighting  plants.^  There  was  no  criticism  of  the  gas 
company,  but  the  people  wanted  to  extend  municipal  ownership. 
They  immediately  found  the  banking  and  legal  interests  of  the 
city  against  them.  "The  very  best  people"  were  as  usual  lined 
up  against  the  community.  The  people  elected  a  council  and 
mayor  pledged  to  municipal  ownership.  A  committee  was 
appointed  to  request  a  price  on  the  gas  plant.  The  company 
refused  to  name  a  price  and  pointed  out  that  the  city  had  no 
authority  to  acquire  or  operate  an  existing  plant.  As  this  was 
true  the  committee  set  out  to  amend  the  charter.  This  was 
found  impossible  because  state  legislation  forbade  a  city  to 

'  See  pp.  68-71. 


366  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

amend  its  charter  until  it  had  framed  a  charter  under  the 
authority  of  the  new  state  constitution  adopted  shortly  before. 
An  amendment  to  the  constitution  was  passed  permitting  cities 
to  revise  their  old  charters.  It  was  indorsed  by  a  plebiscite  in 
191 2.  The  legislature  then  specified  the  manner  of  making  its 
amendments ;  Ypsilanti  promptly  amended  its  charter  so  that 
it  could  either  buy  an  existing  gas  plant  or  build  a  new  one. 

The  gas  company  now  named  the  figure  of  $227,000  as  their 
price.  The  committee  brought  this  down  to  $165,000.  The 
City  Council  voted  to  submit  to  the  people  the  proposition  of 
erecting  their  own  plant  at  $160,000.  Before  this  vote  was  sub- 
mitted the  gas  company  reduced  its  demand  to  $125,000.  The 
authorities  accepted  this,  but  found  they  could  not  submit  it  to 
the  people  until  the  Supreme  Court  had  passed  on  the  charter 
amendment.  Before  the  court  decision  was  reached,  the  pro- 
posed contract  of  the  gas  company  expired  by  limitation  and  the 
company  presented  new  claims  for  repairs.  Then  the  council 
decided  to  submit  the  proposition  of  building  a  municipal  plant 
to  be  voted  on  at  the  spring  election.  The  gas  company  and  the 
allied  financial  interests  of  the  city  prevented  by  sixty  votes 
the  three-fifths  majority  necessary  to  carry  this  proposal.  Then 
the  gas  company  offered  to  sell  the  property  for  $110,000  and  the 
offer  was  ratified  by  the  voters. 

Another  legal  technicality  was  sprung.  It  was  claimed  that 
while  bonds  could  be  issued  against  the  general  credit  of  the  city 
up  to  10  per  cent  of  its  assessed  value,  only  one-fifth  of  this  could 
be  used  for  pubhc  utilities,  and  the  city  had  already  issued  this 
amount  for  water  and  electric  light.  It  was  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  mortgage  the  plant  to  its  full  value  to  protect  the  bonds. 
The  bonds  were  thereupon  boycotted  by  the  banks,  the  gas  com- 
pany and  the  bonding  houses.  As  a  cHmax,  the  European  war 
broke  out  just  as  the  bonds  were  being  put  on  the  market.  A 
committee  of  patriots  —  business  and  professional  men  —  was 
organized  to  sell  the  bonds,  which  they  did  in  three  weeks. 
Subscriptions  ranged  from  $100  to  $10,000.  The  committee 
served  without  compensation,  and  the  entire  issue  of  $130,000 
6  per  cent  bonds  was  sold  without  any  expense  for  commissions. 

Under  such  conditions  the  wonder  is  not  that  municipal  owner- 
ship has  been  so  widely  successful,  but  that  it  ever  succeeds. 


MUNICIPAL   OWNERSHIP  367 

Elasticity 

In  addition  to  the  difficulty  of  good  government,  when  the 
leading  citizens  are  interested  in  private  enterprise  and  indiffer- 
ent to  collective  activities,  there  is  also  the  handicap  of  the 
limited  area  of  public  operation.  Private  street  railway  and 
electric  lighting  franchises  may  cover  a  much  larger  area  than  a 
city ;  there  is  more  elasticity  in  the  conduct  of  private  business. 
The  city  officials  are  so  hampered  by  the  crude  restrictions  of 
our  imperfect  American  democracy,  that  even  if  they  are  the 
peers  of  the  managers  of  private  corporations,  there  are  the 
heavy  limitations  of  an  inelastic  charter. 

When  Gulliver  was  bound  by  the  Lilliputians,  he  was  hardly 
responsible  for  his  "inefficiency." 

As  cities  get  powers  comparable  to  those  of  private  corpora- 
tions  municipal  ownership  becomes  easy.  The  railway  magnates 
all  over  the  country  are  in  arms  against  regulations  imposed  by 
state  and  nation.  These  regulations  are  often  onerous  and  un- 
warranted, but  never  so  restrictive  as  those  under  which  cities 
have  been  accused  of  failing  in  municipal  ownership.  New 
York,  Pennsylvania  and  Missouri  have  gone  beyond  Massachu- 
setts and  given  their  largest  cities  the  right  to  build,  own  and 
operate  subways  and  street  railways.  Even  before  this  power 
is  applied  the  cities  are  fortified  against  oppression  as  a  woman 
is  when  she  gets  the  ballot. 

First-class  cities  in  Minnesota  have  been  authorized  to  con- 
struct union  railway  stations.  North  Dakota  has  given  city 
councils  the  power  to  submit  to  referendum  the  question  of  bond- 
ing the  cities  for  auditoriums,  armories,  playgrounds,  gymna- 
siums, baths  and  recreation.  Houston  is  the  first  Texas  city 
to  use  the  new  constitutional  home  rule  privilege.  It  has 
amended  its  charter  so  as  to  permit  all  kinds  of  municipal  trad- 
ing. Iowa  municipal  light,  water,  heat  and  power  plants  may 
now  sell  their  services  beyond  the  city  limits.  California  has 
once  more  emphasized  its  home  rule  faith  by  authorizing  public 
utility  districts.  Such  areas  may  include  urban  and  rural  re- 
gions, may  cross  county  lines,  but  may  not  split  a  municipal  cor- 
poration. These  districts  are  empowered  to  build  and  use  works 
to  supply  light,  water,  heat,  power,  transportation,  telephone 
communication,  and  to  dispose  of  garbage,  sewage  and  refuse. 


368  .\MERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Cities  only  need  the  freedom  of  private  corporations  to  dis- 
tance their  efficiency  as  the  government  has  in  Panama.^ 

The  Sinews  of  War 

The  discussion  of  municipal  ownership  involves  both  profit- 
able and  unprofitable  services ;  first,  because  the  increasing  ex- 
pense of  the  unremunerative  functions  demands  a  revenue 
which  the  ordinary  methods  of  taxation  do  not  meet ;  second, 
because  the  standard  of  life  which  is  furthered  by  the  unprofit- 
able public  services  is  higher  than  that  made  possible  by  the 
present  methods  of  public  utility  corporations.  When  it  is  seen 
how  valuable  are  franchises  and  how  much  better  the  existing 
public  services  meet  the  needs  of  the  people  than  do  the  best 
private  corporations,  even  the  American  business  man  will 
abandon  his  eighteenth-century  philosophy  and  become  an  ar- 
dent advocate  of  municipal  ownership.  At  present  only  a  few 
men  of  affairs  profit  by  the  exploiting  methods  of  semi-public 
corporations.  Even  business  organizations  such  as  Boards  of 
Trade  and  Chambers  of  Commerce  are  awakening  to  the  ab- 
surdity of  giving  a  few  men  special  privileges,  not  only  at  the 
expense  of  the  masses  but  to  the  inconvenience  of  business.  The 
profits  of  pubUc  utility  corporations  amount  to  a  tax  on  business 
as  well  as  on  the  consumer. 

While  franchises  exist  there  will  be  business  unrest. 

The  advancing  necessities  of  the  people  make  a  demand  for 
more  services  and  new  revenues.  The  resources  of  our  anti- 
quated taxing  systems  are  not  yet  exhausted.  The  incidence  of 
taxation  is  at  present  unfair.  Still  the  wants  of  the  people 
multiply  so  rapidly  that  even  with  scientific  taxation  other 
reservoirs  of  wealth  must  be  tapped. 

American  cities  get  their  money  chiefly  from  local  taxes,  paid, 
as  has  been  said,  by  the  consumer,  through  the  manufacturer, 
storekeeper  and  landlord.  Other  sources  of  revenue  are 
special  assessments  (charging  up  the  benefits  to  the  property 
owners  who  profit  by  them)  and  trade,  a  source  of  municipal 
revenue  much  less  familiar  here  than  abroad.  The  revenue 
derived  from  liquor  licenses,  our  chief  trade  tax,  is  decreasing 
in  most  cities. 

1  See  p.  83. 


MUNICIPAL   OWNERSHIP  369 

Some  cities  have  receipts  from  franchises  either  by  taxing 
them,  as  in  New  York  and  other  states,  or  by  compensation 
based  upon  earnings,  or  by  the  sale  of  franchises.  Baltimore 
supports  its  parks  from  its  percentage  of  street  railway  earn- 
ings. Chicago  is  supposed  to  be  accumulating  a  fund  for  mu- 
nicipal ownership  out  of  its  share  of  the  people's  nickels.  Still 
the  demand  for  municipal  funds  grows.  Our  urban  elementary 
pubUc  schools  of  over  five  hundred  cities  cost  us  one  hundred 
and  ten  million  dollars.  It  is  not  without  significance  that  street 
railway  companies  in  the  same  cities  enjoyed  net  earnings  to 
the  amount  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  million  dollars.  The 
receipts  of  the  street  railways  would  have  paid  for  the  public 
schools.  All  the  debt  incurred  for  both  remunerative  and  unre- 
munerative  functions  in  most  of  our  cities  acts  as  an  obstacle  to 
the  extension  of  profitable  municipal  enterprises,  because  of  state 
restriction  of  the  city's  debt.  A  million-dollar  life-saving  play- 
ground is  a  debt,  not  an  asset  in  America.  A  profitable  water 
supply  is  also  a  debt,  not  an  asset  in  most  states  by  the  peculiar 
laws  designed  to  hamper  municipal  activity  in  the  interest  of 
private  corporations.  New  York  has  lately  been  freed  from  this 
burden.^ 

Starving  non-combatants  is  practiced  only  by  the  enemy. 

Municipal  Trading 

The  British  term  "municipal  trading"  distinguishes  very 
clearly  between  the  remunerative  and  unremunerative  enter- 
prises of  the  city.  The  hmited  extension  of  such  functions  in 
this  country  has  prevented  a  clear  classification  until  recently. 
The  American  superstition  has  recognized  the  propriety  of  mu- 
nicipal ownership  of  the  water  supply,  but  has  been  timid  about 
other  enterprises,  commonly  limiting  them  by  constitutional 
and  charter  provisions.  The  report  made  by  the  govern- 
ment  in    the    Bulletin  of  the  Department  of    Commerce  on 

'New  York  Debt  Limit  Amendment:  "Any  debt  hereafter  incurred  by  the 
city  of  New  York  for  a  pubHc  improvement  owned  or  to  be  owned  by  the  city, 
which  yields  to  the  city  current  net  revenue,  after  making  any  necessary  allowance 
for  repairs  and  maintenance  for  which  the  city  is  liable,  in  excess  of  the  interest  on 
said  debt  and  of  the  annual  installments  necessary  for  amortization,  may  be  ex- 
cluded in  ascertaining  the  power  of  said  city  to  become  otherwise  indebted,  provided 
that  a  sinking  fund  for  its  amortization  shall  have  been  established  and  maintained." 


370  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

the  "Financial  Statistics  of  Cities"  indicates  that  American 
cities  have  $1,237,000,000  invested  in  municipal  trading  enter- 
prises (of  which  $909,000,000  were  water  supply  systems).  New 
York  City's  investment  is  more  than  one-third  of  the  total  for 
all  American  cities.  A  measure  of  the  present  extent  of  these 
municipal  activities  may  be  seen  by  noting  that  American  cities 
have  $914,000,000  invested  in  recreation,  mostly  parks,  and 
$604,000,000  in  schools,  the  total  value  of  city  properties  being 
about  three  and  a  half  bilhons.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  one-third 
of  this  earns  a  profit. 

Common  property  is  becoming  common. 

Cities  own  more  electric  lighting  plants  than  gas  plants  because 
the  advent  of  the  former  coincides  with  the  movement  for  mu- 
nicipal ownership.  In  the  same  way  the  increasing  amount  of 
paving  done  by  contract  labor  has  led  to  the  establishment  of 
asphalt  repairing  and  paving  plants.  Fourteen  cities  have 
nearly  half  a  million  dollars  invested  in  that  way,  of  which  De- 
troit was  the  first.  It  was  estimated  to  have  saved  $69,000 
during  the  first  five  years  of  its  existence.  New  Orleans  not 
only  has  a  municipal  repair  plant,  but  lays  asphalt,  brick,  and 
other  pavements.  The  borough  of  Manhattan  is  building  the 
largest  municipally  owned  asphalt  plant  in  the  world.  Pasa- 
dena owns  a  road-oil  pit,  by  means  of  which  it  is  able  to  furnish 
a  uniform  oil  for  the  treatment  of  the  street  paving.  It  has 
been  an  invaluable  contribution  to  the  streets  and  roads  in  that 
section  of  the  country  where  oiled  roads  are  general  and  where 
uniform  treatment  is  imperative. 

Pasadena  in  the  last  six  months  of  1913  took  in  $8000  for  oil, 
making  a  profit  of  $2400,  which  is  more  than  the  pit  originally 
cost. 

Los  Angeles  also  conducts  a  municipal  garage.  The  garage 
houses  all  the  motor  vehicles  owned  by  the  city  of  Los  Angeles 
except  those  of  the  Water  Department  and  Fire  Department. 
It  is  responsible  for  repairing  all  of  the  power  vehicles  from  the 
poUceman's  motorcycle  up  to  the  Fire  Department's  largest 
piece  of  apparatus.  Each  department  is  charged  up  for  the 
services  performed  at  cost  plus  20  per  cent  for  administration 
charges.  The  charges  average  about  sixty  cents  an  hour  as 
compared  with  seventy-five  cents  to  one  dollar  formerly  paid 
for  private  enterprise.     The  garage  maintains  some  machines 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  371 

which  are  rented  to  other  departments,  again  charging  each 
department  for  actual  service.  There  is  also  in  the  garage  a 
store  department  where  automobile  accessories  are  kept.  The 
city  saves  from  one-third  to  one-half  the  price  on  this  material. 

A  rose  by  any  other  name  would  smell  as  socialistic. 

Kansas  City,  Missouri,  conducts  an  electrical  supply  store 
furnishing  lamps,  stoves  and  household  appliances.  Twin 
Harbors,  Michigan,  started  a  municipal  coal  yard  in  order  to  pro- 
vide its  citizens  with  retail  quantities  of  coal  at  wholesale  prices. 
Weatherford,  Oklahoma,  has  a  municipal  ice  plant  and  Cleveland 
a  cold  storage  plant.  Weatherford  makes  ice  in  connection  with 
the  water  and  light  plant,  utilizing  exhaust  steam.  While 
Detroit,  Seattle  and  San  Francisco  were  struggHng  to  munici- 
palize parts  of  their  street  railway  systems,  Monroe,  Louisiana, 
built  the  first  municipal  railway  in  America.^  The  nine  miles 
of  track  equipment,  costing  $100,000,  have  been  paid  for  out  of 
ten  years'  earnings.  It  is  run  in  connection  with  the  water  and 
light  plant. 

He  laughs  best  whose  laughing  is  infectious. 

Sabetha,  Kansas  (population  1800),  is  one  of  a  number  of 
cities  that  have  gone  into  city  heating.  Its  lighting  plant  also 
furnishes  steam  heat.  Newton,  Massachusetts ;  Bloomington, 
Indiana;  and  Brookings,  South  Dakota,  show  that  there  is  no 
geographical  limitation  to  municipal  heating  systems.  Cleve- 
land has  established  the  office  of  City  Heating  and  Ventilating 
Engineer  with  duties  of  inspection.  It  has  also  put  up  a  steam 
heating  system  at  a  cost  of  $150,000  to  utilize  the  exhaust  steam 
from  its  plant  in  Fairmount  Road.  It  had  experimented  with 
the  low  pressure  steam  system  operated  easily  in  connection  with 
this  plant,  and  was  thus  led  to  install  a  high  pressure  heating 
system  in  order  to  distribute  steam  greater  distances. 

Brookings,  South  Dakota,  purchased  its  local  telephone  system 
in  1903  at  an  appraised  value  of  $18,000.  Half  of  the  bonds  were 
paid  in  1909,  the  other  half  in  19 13,  from  the  revenues  of  the 
plant.  It  thus  paid  for  itself  in  ten  years.  January  i,  191 5, 
it  had  $8000  to  its  credit  after  paying  for  extensions.  The 
charges  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  old  private  company  —  $30 
a  year  for  office  phones,  $18  for  residence,  and  $12  for  party  fines. 

For  many  years  the  pubfic  utility  organs  made  sport  of  Bos- 

'  See  pp.  46,  47,  52-54- 


372  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

ton's  printing  department.  As  recently  as  1908  the  department 
showed  a  deficit  of  $2000.  One  of  the  later  superintendents  has 
turned  over  to  the  city  a  surplus  of  $43,000  for  three  years  of 
service.  His  successor  turned  in  $64,000  as  the  net  profit  of 
two  years  of  operation. 

Among  the  other  municipal  trading  enterprises  New  York  and 
Portsmouth,  Virginia,  own  ferries ;  New  Orleans  sugar  sheds ; 
Grand  Forks,  North  Dakota,  an  abattoir;  Denver  irrigation 
works ;  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  a  powder  magazine ;  New 
Orleans  and  San  Francisco  belt  railways ;  Augusta,  Georgia,  a 
canal ;  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  and  Red  Wing,  Minnesota, 
theaters. 

These  experiments  in  municipal  trading  indicate  that  the  only 
reason  our  American  cities  are  behind  European  cities  is  that  the 
dead  hand  of  the  Constitution  continues  to  rest  heavily  upon 
them. 

Private  Initiative 

The  tendency  toward  municipal  ownership  raises  some  ques- 
tions with  regard  to  the  other  than  material  advantages  to  the 
community  of  public  ownership.  In  opposition  to  a  time- 
honored  contention,  it  may  be  urged  that  pubhc  ownership 
promotes  private  initiative.  When  a  private  company  has 
developed  organization  to  a  point  where  it  may  be  said  to  have 
reached  stability,  where  improvements  will  be  much  fewer  in 
the  future  than  they  have  been  in  the  past,  where  the  possession 
of  unusual  privileges  in  a  well-established  economic  function 
insures  a  steady  income  to  the  investors,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
time  is  ripe  for  public  ownership.  The  needs  of  the  community 
will  be  furthered  by  the  enjoyment  of  the  revenues  received  from 
such  an  industry,  but  better  still,  by  the  possibility  of  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  cost  of  the  commodity  or  service.  The  community 
will  also  be  benefited  by  setting  free  the  capital  and  energy  in- 
volved in  this  activity,  and  enabling  these  to  find  a  new  outlet 
in  the  supply  of  other  human  wants. 

The  great  function  of  private  capital  and  private  initiative 
is  in  experimentation  and  development  of  undiscovered  and  un- 
recognized resources. 

If  the  indi\aduals  owning  the  capital  involved  in  such  enter- 
prises are  to  be  assured  a  permanent  means  of  livelihood  private 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  373 

initiative  is  so  far  curtailed.  The  public  service  will  not  be  so 
well  performed  if  the  organization  is  strong  enough  to  have  a 
virtual  or  actual  monopoly,  and  new  fields  of  development  will 
remain  neglected  because  of  the  lack  of  necessity  for  seeking 
these  opportunities  for  investment.  It  is  sometimes  paradoxi- 
cally urged  that  the  community  unfairly  displaces  certain 
individuals  by  the  public  ownership  of  any  activity.  On  the 
contrary,  the  proprietors  have  been  adequately  rewarded  and 
have  the  means  of  seeking  new  opportunities,  which  may  be  of 
benefit  not  only  to  them,  but  to  others.  The  community  gains 
directly  by  cheapened  service  or  a  relief  of  taxation,  and  in- 
directly by  the  new  activities  promoted  through  the  freeing  of 
private  capital.  Expenditure  in  the  purchase  or  provision  of 
such  an  enterprise  means  taxation,  which  would  otherwise  never 
have  taken  place,  and  is  a  form  of  collective  consumption  which 
it  is  desirable  to  promote,  and  belongs  in  the  same  category 
as  the  increase  of  private  consumption.  So  long  as  there  is  some- 
thing desirable  provided,  and  there  is  no  excessive  burden  placed 
upon  any  one,  it  is  to  the  community's  advantage.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  new  industries  fail  to  develop  and  many  old  ones 
languish  because  of  the  possession  of  special  privileges  by  indi- 
viduals who,  at  one  time,  were  very  energetic  in  promoting, 
directly  or  indirectly,  the  interests  of  the  community. 

The  type  of  "big  business"  man  who  exploits  the  American 
city  holds  office  in  the  European  city. 

It  is  an  illuminating  phenomenon  that  the  contrast  between 
the  efficiency  of  British  and  German  municipal  administration 
and  American  inefficiency  coincides  with  the  widespread  munici- 
pal ownership  in  those  countries  and  its  limitation  in  America. 
There  is  a  constant  effort  in  America  to  improve  the  machinery 
of  municipal  government  without  emplo>ang  the  dynamic  which 
has  made  for  successful  administration  in  Europe.  The  effort 
in  American  cities  has  been  to  ehminate  spoils  and  introduce 
business  administration.  This  has  led  to  admirable  economies, 
but  it  is  a  poor  makeshift  for  democratic  administration.  That 
can  only  be  accomplished  when  the  people  possess  the  means  of 
promoting  community  life,  and  service  is  substituted  for  profits. 

The  American,  who  has  been  indifferent  to  the  private  owner- 
ship of  public  utilities,  is  becoming  alert  to  the  impropriety  of 
the  private  ownership  of  public  officials. 


374  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Unremunerative  Activities 

Our  dilatory  and  timid  methods  have  had  one  compensation : 
they  have  developed  our  unremunerative  activities  first,  so  that 
there  has  been  set  a  standard  of  service  rather  than  of  cost. 
Municipal  services  have  not  the  sharp  pecuniary  measurement 
of  private  business,  but  they  establish  a  standard  of  serving 
the  consumer  unknown  to  private  industry.  The  municipality 
excels  in  the  quality  of  service  and  its  extension  to  people  whose 
small  demand  or  remote  place  of  residence  would  cause  them  to 
be  overlooked  by  business. 

The  taxpayer  must  have  been  educated  to  see  that  dividends 
can  be  paid  in  life  as  well  as  in  money. 

In  some  of  our  leading  cities  the  efficiency  of  management  and 
even  the  economy  of  administration  of  fire  departments,  schools, 
libraries  and  parks,  is  beyond  anything  known  in  private  indus- 
try in  the  country.  While  the  police  departments  are  often 
under  suspicion,  the  loyalty  of  policemen  is  more  like  that  of 
soldiers  than  that  of  private  employees.  There  is  no  question 
but  that  the  firemen  render  a  service  to  the  consumers  or  citi- 
zens who  employ  them  unrivaled  by  any  corporation's  servants. 
The  trained  public  librarians  of  the  United  States  furnish  an  ex- 
ample of  technical  skill  and  unremitting  devotion  to  occupation 
which  sets  a  new  standard  for  both  public  and  private  activities. 
Similarly  the  services  rendered  by  some  of  our  park  and  educa- 
tional systems  is  man  for  man,  or  woman  for  woman,  and  dollar 
for  dollar,  unapproachable  in  private  industry. 

Municipal  ownership  for  purposes  of  revenue  and  service  is  on 
the  eve  of  its  greatest  expansion  in  the  United  States.  As  the 
spoils  system  is  giving  way  to  business  administration,  so  will 
the  latter  be  succeeded  by  democratic  service. 

Municipal  Immortality 

There  are  more  "widows  and  orphans"  in  every  community 
than  in  any  public  service  corporation.  It  is  more  important 
to  protect  the  whole  of  the  coming  generation  than  that  fraction 
for  which  corporation  magnates  are  so  solicitous. 

The  burden  on  the  future  citizen  of  postponing  public  control 
is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  there  should  be  a  greater  exercise 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP  375 

of  municipal  authority,  even  when  the  character  of  the  officials 
is  such  as  to  dismay  sober  citizens.  The  charter  of  the  original 
street  railway  company  of  Philadelphia  gave  the  opportunity 
for  municipal  ownership  at  any  time.  Every  franchise  exten- 
sion has  made  it  increasingly  difficult  for  that  city  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  street  railways.  The  same  is  true  of  many  other  cities 
which  have  been  helpless  because  of  franchise  conditions,  and 
some  of  these  have  renewed  franchises  for  periods  of  from  twenty 
to  fifty  years  without  regard  to  the  possible  desirability  of  closer 
municipal  control.  One  of  the  cardinal  principles  recognized 
by  nearly  all  classes  of  citizens  is  that  however  little  a  city  may 
now  be  prepared  for  municipal  ownership,  a  clause  making  that 
possible  must  be  inserted  in  the  new  franchises  for  the  protection 
of  subsequent  generations.  Yet  this  protection  may  be  unavail- 
ing, if,  when  the  day  of  reckoning  comes,  the  city  can  be  made 
to  assume  all  the  financial  burdens  of  watered  stock. 

Municipal  ownership  must  be  as  immediate  as  existing  fran- 
chises will  economically  permit. 

Public  ownership  provides  for  the  coming  generation  and  thus 
fulfills  the  community's  law  of  life.  The  superior  experience  and 
more  immediate  interests  of  private  capital  make  for  energy  and 
sometimes  for  efficiency,  but  there  is  no  permanence.  One  of 
the  most  serious  difficulties  involved  in  the  private  performance 
of  services  which  are  essential  to  public  welfare  is  the  fact  that 
the  individuals  in  control,  however  honest  they  may  be,  have 
no  inducement  to  make  provision  for  the  needs  of  the  coming 
generation.  Thus  the  community  is  frequently  saddled  with 
burdens  which  remain  a  tax  upon  the  resources  of  a  generation 
in  no  way  responsible  for  these  actions.  Franchises  which  ex- 
tend beyond  one  generation  are  utterly  indefensible.  There  is 
an  abundance  of  experience  to  prove  that  the  life  of  one  genera- 
tion is  long  enough  to  provide  adequate  remuneration  for  such 
investments,  and  the  numerous  injustices  worked  by  any  greater 
extension  of  such  franchises  furnish  sufficient  evidence  in  favor 
of  short  franchises  and  subsequent  public  ownership. 

The  municipality  possesses  immortality  as  no  individuals  or 
corporations  can,  and  its  interests,  even  more  than  those  of  a 
family,  must  be  anticipated,  so  that  the  coming  generation  may 
not  be  sacrificed  to  the  present. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION 

The  Federal  System 

The  scientific  administration  of  the  American  city  is  an 
achievement  for  the  twentieth  century.  The  fathers  of  the 
republic  made  no  provision  for  the  government  of  cities.  At 
the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  United  States  Constitution  there 
was  no  city  so  large  as  one  hundred  cities  now  are.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  cities  were  free  to  experiment  with  forms  of 
government,  which  they  did  with  abandon  throughout  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  insignificance  of  the  functions  to  be  per- 
formed, the  absence  of  other  precedent,  and  the  growing  rever- 
ence for  the  Federal  Constitution  misled  most  of  the  cities  into 
imitation  of  its  principles.  A  document  founded  on  foreign 
theories  of  government  and  absolutely  aristocratic  in  its  purpose 
was  used  as  a  model  for  the  democratic  administration  of  cities. 
Failure  was  inevitable,  but  American  citizens  enjoyed  a  century 
of  experience  with  the  growing  power  of  the  boss  before  dis- 
covering the  fallacy  of  the  system  of  checks. 

As  Emerson  said  of  creeds,  constitutions  show  how  far  the 
waters  once  came. 

The  arbitrary  separation  of  executive  from  legislative  functions 
has  been  virtually  universal  from  the  time  when  cities  abandoned 
human  experience  and  put  their  trust  in  the  divinity  of  Alexander 
Hamilton.  The  colonial  towns  were  governed  by  a  council 
without  a  mayor.  The  beginning  of  the  federal  delusion  came 
with  the  addition  of  the  mayor's  veto.  If,  then,  the  house  did 
not  seem  sufficiently  divided  against  itself  to  show  fidelity  to 
national  waste  and  confusion,  a  second  council  was  added.  From 
time  to  time  as  public  business  grew  other  administrative  officers 
and  boards  were  superimposed.     The  more  reliance  was  placed 

376 


MUNICIPAL  ADMINISTRATION  377 

on  checks  and  not  on  the  intelligence  and  integrity  of  the  voter 
the  tighter  grew  the  grip  of  the  boss. 

A  plural  council  is  as  valuable  a  guarantee  of  salvation  in 
Philadelphia  as  a  plural  marriage  in  Utah. 

The  Crude  Bicameral  System 

The  crude  federal  system  as  it  works  in  Philadelphia  or  any 
other  city,  in  any  state  in  the  union,  or  in  the  nation's  capital 
illustrates  the  inconclusiveness  of  nineteenth-century  experience. 
If  the  people  want  a  measure  passed  in  Philadelphia  they  must 
employ  the  following  methods  among  others.  A  caucus  must 
be  held  to  determine  candidates.  Experienced  men  naturally 
control  these  meetings;  the  patriotic  but  untutored  citizen 
finds  himself  baffled  by  the  intricacy  of  political  combinations. 
Election  follows  nomination.  Philadelphia  is  still  in  the  clutches 
of  a  corrupt  national  party  that  keeps  the  honest  but  unintelli- 
gent citizen  submerged  in  protective  tariff  slush.  Hence  the 
elections  never  offer  a  clear-cut  local  issue.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  people's  candidates  are  chosen  only  when  the  bosses 
disagree.  In  the  midst  of  the  "Billy  Sunday"  revival,  when 
Philadelphia  was  in  a  state  of  moral  exaltation  and  the  daily 
papers  were  giving  as  much  space  to  sermons  as  they  usually 
do  to  prize  fights,  it  was  universally  admitted  that  the  only 
chance  of  returning  the  reform  administration  was  the  improb- 
able falling  out  of  the  bosses,  whose  disagreements  had  permitted 
the  election  of  Mayor  Blankenburg. 

In  the  unUkely  event  of  the  election  of  an  honest  mayor  and 
a  majority  of  councilmen,  hitherto  law-abiding,  a  measure  has 
to  pass  both  councils  (after  running  the  gantlet  of  lobbies  and 
committees)  and  risk  the  mayor's  veto.  It  is  improbable  that 
a  popular  bill  will  pass  on  its  first  presentation.  The  people 
must  therefore  be  prepared  to  bring  pressure  on  unenlightened 
or  corrupt  councils,  or  even  renew  their  efforts  with  newly  elected 
councils  or  mayor.  Should  the  bill  pass  (probably  in  a  mutilated 
state)  the  executive  department  must  see  to  its  enforcement  and 
perhaps  the  courts  determine  its  constitutionaUty.  If  the  meas- 
ure is  of  great  value  to  the  people,  it  is  most  likely  to  be  opposed 
in  the  courts. 

Between  the  people  and  their  laws  stand  caucus,  nomination, 


378  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

election,   common  and  select  councils  with   their  committees 
and  lobbies,  mayor,  city  charter,  state  constitution,  courts ! 

Most  of  the  federal  charters  are  not  so  crudely  imitative  as 
that  of  Philadelphia.  In  many  instances  they  provide  for  only 
one  council.  They  are  generally  complicated,  however,  like 
the  state  constitutions,  by  boards  and  commissions  designed  to 
do  the  work  neglected  by  the  original  legislative  and  adminis- 
trative authorities.  But  they  all  err  in  keeping  the  legislative 
and  executive  departments  antagonistic. 

The  Organic  Federal  System 

The  latest  federal  charter  is  the  most  consistent.  The  new 
Cleveland  charter  is  frankly  framed  on  the  "federal"  principle 
without  slavishly  following  the  United  States  Constitution.  It 
is  the  product  of  the  invaluable  experience  of  Cleveland  un- 
der Tom  Johnson  and  Newton  Baker.  For  the  first  time  in  an 
American  city  the  system  is  being  given  a  trial  under  a  charter 
organically  designed  for  a  municipality.  The  charter  was  framed 
under  the  Ohio  home  rule  law  so  that  it  has  no  strings  to  it. 
There  are  no  party  primaries  and  no  party  designations  on  the 
ballot.  Candidates  are  nominated  by  petition  and  voters 
express  their  first,  second  and  other  choices  at  the  election. 
They  vote  a  short  ballot  because  they  choose  only  a  mayor 
and  a  councilman  from  each  ward,  two  candidates,  after  the 
British  system.  The  mayor  and  heads  of  departments  have  seats 
in  the  council  but  no  votes.  The  charter  includes  the  initiative, 
referendum  and  recall.  The  mayor  is  the  supreme  executive, 
appointing  all  heads  of  departments,  viz. :  law,  public  service, 
public  welfare,  public  safety,  finance  and  pubHc  utilities.  These 
constitute  his  cabinet.  The  division  between  executive  and 
legislative  is  clear,  vastly  superior  to  the  United  States  Constitu- 
tion, but  it  puts  reliance  on  the  later  fallacy  of  one-man  power. 
A  superman  in  the  mayor's  chair  is  supposed  to  swing  twenty- 
six  parochial  celebrities  in  the  council. 

A  city  that  has  had  two  Napoleons  is  likely  to  believe  in  the 
divine  right  of  kings. 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  379 

The  Business  System 

The  first  serious  endeavor  to  modify  the  federal  plan  for  cities 
was  still  faithful  to  national  precedent.  Business  men  began  to 
demand  one-man  power  over  the  prevailing  conflict  of  interests. 
This  was,  however,  in  harmony  with  the  extraordinary  authority 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States.  There  was  no  intelligent 
reassignment  of  powers ;  the  mayor  was  merely  made  supreme 
by  the  pernicious  national  practice  of  appointments.  Chicagoans 
have  given  the  mayor  more  power  than  any  man  can  wisely  use. 
Then  they  trust  to  luck  to  get  a  paragon.  When  they  secure 
an  able  executive  like  Busse,  or  Thompson,  who  looks  after  the 
bookkeeping  better  than  a  politician  is  expected  to  do  and  is 
sufficiently  deferential  to  the  "efficiency"  of  public  utility  cor- 
porations, honest  business  men  rejoice  in  the  millennium. 

Business  is  busyness ! 

The  ultima  thiile,  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  the  big  business  vision 
has  been  attained  in  New  York  with  a  charter  fifty  times  as 
long  as  the  United  States  Constitution,  including  all  the  amend- 
ments of  125  years.  It  would  not  be  fair  to  saddle  the  business 
mind  with  all  the  defects  of  this  unconscionable  charter.  It  is 
an  honest  endeavor  to  devise  a  form  of  government  for  a  cos- 
mopolitan city,  the  prey  of  Tammany  and  its  pubHc  utility 
masters  and  the  victim  of  special  legislation  imposed  upon  the 
city  by  ignorant  and  not  too  scrupulous  rural  statesmen.  Guile- 
less business  men  have  been  misled  by  an  imagined  intimacy 
with  the  intricacies  of  politics,  derived  from  spasmodic  rebellions 
against  Tammany.  Instead  of  cleansing  the  system  of  infection 
they  have  tried  to  mutilate  offending  members.  The  mayor  is 
invested  with  the  power  of  the  President.  The  head  of  the  body 
politic  is  disproportionate.  The  council  retains  so  few  legisla- 
tive functions  that  it  has  become  a  vermiform  appendix,  always 
threatening  the  life  of  the  organism.  The  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment  is  a  new  organism  imposed  upon  the  old. 
It  is  made  up  of  the  Mayor  of  New  York,  the  president  of  the 
Board  of  Aldermen,  the  comptroller,  and  the  president  of  each 
of  the  five  boroughs.  Its  efficiency  is  due  to  the  superior  type 
of  men  the  importance  of  the  office  has  drawn  to  the  position, 
and  not  at  all  to  the  unique  nature  of  the  body.  New  York 
has  so  much  money  to  spend  that  it  can  secure  a  good  deal  of 
efficiency  where  another  community  would  fail. 


380  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

New  York  spends  more  money  in  its  administration  each  year 
than  London  and  Paris  together.  The  metropolis  is  in  many 
external  ways  the  best  administered  of  American  cities,  but  its 
standards  of  expenditure  are  fabulous.  It  makes  no  pretense 
of  determining  what  things  should  cost.  The  only  demand 
made  by  its  business  monitors  is  that  the  bookkeeping  should 
be  accurate.  As  in  Chicago  and  Pittsburgh  reasonable  charges 
for  services  would  lower  the  dividends  of  public  utility  companies 
upon  which  its  philanthropic  citizens  depend  for  the  incomes 
from  which  they  or  their  friends  make  their  subscriptions  to 
municipal  reform. 

A  happy  by-product  of  New  York's  standard  of  hving  is 
the  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research.  A  group  of  young  univer- 
sity-trained men,  skilled  in  economics  and  free  from  both  politi- 
cal and  business  superstitions,  have  been  able  to  get  ample 
financial  support  for  investigations  into  municipal  mismanage- 
ment similar  to  the  inquiries  into  business  inefiiciency  now 
popular.  Uniform  accounting  in  the  different  municipal  de- 
partments and  a  scientific  budget  have  been  forced  on  New 
York  by  this  public-spirited  organization.  The  very  excellence 
of  these  financial  methods  intensifies  the  belief  in  one-man  rule 
in  the  metropolis,  and  democratic  administration  is  lost  in  the 
maze  of  ledgers  and  card  catalogues.  The  city's  unremunerative 
enterprises  are  fairly  well  managed,  while  the  profitable  services 
are  exploited  by  the  type  of  men  who  uphold  a  business  adminis- 
tration. 

The  Sociahst  administration  of  Mayor  Seidel  in  Milwaukee 
was  the  first  to  make  a  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research  oflScial. 

The  Finance  Commission  of  Boston  was  appointed  in  1909 
to  bring  order  out  of  Boston's  chaos.  The  state  requires  the 
city  to  appropriate  $25,000  in  addition  to  the  salary  of  the  chair- 
man. A  bureau  of  municipal  research  has  been  organized  by 
the  commission.  The  universities  of  Wisconsin,  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  serve  the  cities  of  those  states  through  their  extension 
divisions.  They  lack  the  power  of  the  Boston  Finance  Com- 
mission but  they  are  not  regarded  as  so  alien  as  many  of  the 
cities  feel  the  private  research  bureaus  to  be. 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  381 

The  Autocratic  System 

Washington,  D.C.,  is  the  model  of  municipal  government 
to  the  statesman  so  far  from  his  constituents  that  democracy 
is  only  a  campaign  slogan.  The  ostensible  government  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  is  a  commission  of  three  residents,  one  of 
whom  must  be  an  army  officer  of  fifteen  years'  standing.  This 
officer  has  a  corps  of  military  men  under  him  and  disburses 
30  per  cent  of  the  annual  expenditures  of  the  District.  The 
civilian  commissioners  supervise  less  than  30  per  cent  of  the 
expenditures.  This  commission  of  three,  responsible  for  a  little 
more  than  half  of  the  budget,  is  dependent  on  appropriations 
initiated  in  the  House  of  Representatives  and  has  to  act  under 
the  laws  of  ancient  England,  early  Maryland,  and  a  century  of 
federal  legislation.  It  is  circumscribed  by  the  United  States' 
courts  that  control  all  criminal  procedure  in  the  District ;  its 
sphere  is  limited  by  the  Board  of  Charities  appointed  by  the 
President,  the  Board  of  Children's  Guardians  appointed  by 
police  judges,  the  Board  of  Education  appointed  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  District,  the  War  Department  that  controls  the 
Water  and  Park  systems,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion in  charge  of  the  street  railways  and  gas  companies,  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  caring  for  the  insane ;  it  is  subject 
to  legislation  by  the  District  Committees  of  the  House  and 
Senate. 

The  Washington  commission  is  about  as  powerful  as  a  Federal 
judge  trying  to  fine  the  oil  trust. 

The  House  and  Senate  District  Committees  are  directly  and 
indirectly  responsible  for  greater  incompetency  than  anything 
in  American  public  life  except  the  aristocratic  constitution 
of  Alexander  Hamilton.  Congressmen  and  Senators  are  sent 
to  Washington  to  represent  their  constituents  and  the  nation ; 
they  naturally  leave  local  affairs  to  these  committees ;  Congress- 
men are  legitimately  occupied  in  larger  afiairs  than  the  govern- 
ment of  the  District;  they  find  it  as  difiicult  to  understand 
the  local  government  as  other  people  do,  unless  they  give  it 
special  attention.  A  Congressman  has  to  trade  his  vote  where 
he  can.  He  wants  improvements  in  his  district,  and  can  often 
get  them  at  the  expense  of  improvements  in  the  District.  If  a 
Congressman  gets  in  no  deeper  than  to  find  money  available  at 


382  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

4  per  cent  when  he  wishes  to  build  a  house,  his  mind  works  more 
sluggishly  thereafter. 

An  insignificant  minority  of  conspicuous  patriots  and  of  con- 
scienceless grafters  inform  themselves  about  the  methods  of 
local  administration  in  Washington. 

The  Senate  and  House  theoretically  devote  a  day  a  week  to 
District  affairs.  Although  this  day  is  often  surrendered  to 
other  seemingly  more  important  matters,  enough  of  the  time  of 
both  national  and  legislative  bodies  is  given  to  District  affairs 
to  discourage  any  genuine  statesman.  It  is  thus  easy  for  mem- 
bers to  rely  on  the  Senate  and  House  District  Committees  for 
reports  on  the  innumerable  details  of  District  government. 
The  Senate  Committee  numbers  fourteen,  the  House  Committee 
twenty.  These  Committees  are  so  large  and  the  members  so 
preoccupied  by  national  and  personal  interests  that  they  in 
turn  rely  on  their  chairmen.  The  chairmen  of  these  Committees 
become,  therefore,  dictators,  in  whose  hands  are  not  only  enor- 
mous revenues,  but  immense  influence  over  jobs  and  investments. 

The  importance  of  these  Committee  chairmanships  is  not 
fully  understood  unless  one  remembers  the  complexity  of  the 
government  of  the  District,  the  small  authority  vested  in  the 
stalking  horse  commissioners  and  the  methods  of  raising  revenue. 
One-half  of  all  the  funds  of  the  District  are  contributed  by 
the  national  government.  The  extravagance  of  administration 
does  not  weigh  heavily  upon  the  people,  who  are  excessively 
taxed  considering  the  benefits  derived  but  moderately  taxed 
as  compared  with  other  cities.  Citizens  as  well  as  grafting 
Congressmen  are  thus  bribed  to  endure  the  present  system. 
If  some  do  feel  the  weight  of  taxation,  they  find  themselves  in 
opposition  to  the  residents  of  the  favored  districts  in  which 
these  appropriations  are  expended. 

Any  voteless  citizen  who  might  complain  of  injustice  has  to 
follow  an  interminable  and  disheartening  path  to  secure  redress. 

An  injured  citizen  would  have  to  seek  out  the  official  repre- 
sentatives of  the  District  —  the  Commissioners  —  in  their  office 
at  Pennsylvania  Avenue  and  Fourteenth  Street.  He  would 
be  told  that  they  have  no  authority  to  make  improvements  and 
would  be  sent  to  the  War  Department,  Seventeenth  Street, 
south  of  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
Seventh  and  F  streets,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  383 

131 7  F  Street,  and  the  House  District  Committee  at  the  Capitol. 
If  the  citizen  had  limited  leisure,  he  could  not  see  all  these  au- 
thorities in  less  than  a  year.  When  he  finally  had  run  the  gant- 
let and  had  discovered  that  all  administrative  organizations 
are  dependent  on  the  House  which  makes  appropriations,  that 
the  House  relies  on  its  District  committee,  that  the  members 
of  the  House  Committee  rely  on  the  chairman,  that  the  chairman 
holds  the  job  because  of  his  peculiar  unfitness,  that  the  chair- 
man refers  him  to  the  House  and  that  the  one  thing  that  the 
members  of  the  House  know  is  the  peculiar  unfitness  of  the  chair- 
man, the  citizen  would  fall  back  among  the  other  asphyxiated 
residents  of  Washington. 

This  is  the  form  of  government  that  the  House  minority 
leader  says  makes  Washington  the  best  governed  city  in  America. 

The  Council  System 

The  so-called  commission  form  of  government  has  a  heavy 
load  to  carry  in  the  fact  that  the  government  of  Washington 
has  been  called  by  that  name.  The  supernumerary  commissions 
with  which  many  other  cities  are  burdened  have  made  the  load 
no  lighter.  The  ground  must  be  cleared  of  such  debris  by  ob- 
serving that  this  twentieth-century  form  of  municipal  adminis- 
tration is  the  council  form  of  government.  Instead  of  the  federal 
plan  of  checks  or  the  business  device  of  a  supreme  executive 
the  legislative  body  is  above  all  other  departments. 

Many  commission  enthusiasts  are  not  clear  as  to  the  reason 
for  its  superiority.  It  was  at  first  supposed  that  the  concen- 
tration of  powers  in  one  body  was  the  essence  of  the  commission 
form.  This  would  be  a  suflScient  justification  for  supplanting 
the  effete  system  of  checks,  but  it  does  not  compass  the  super- 
lative merit  of  the  council  system.  There  must  be  a  head.  In 
a  democratic  society  to  attain  efficiency  the  people  must  rule 
but  they  must  not  be  called  upon  to  decide  technical  questions. 
The  legislature  cannot  be  made  up  of  technical  experts,  but  it 
must  voice  the  popular  will.  On  the  other  hand,  the  expert 
must  not  be  called  from  his  duties  to  campaign.  It  might  be 
supposed  that  the  spectacle  of  a  campaigning  president  would 
remove  the  need  for  such  argument,  but  tradition  is  a  hard 
master. 


384  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

The  devastation  of  Galveston  cleared  the  ground  for  the 
council  form  of  government,  but  it  did  not  complete  the 
superstructure. 

All  commissions  worthy  of  classification  under  the  council 
plan  enjoy  this  common  denominator  —  the  executive  re- 
sponsible to  the  council.  Shallow  writers  have  put  Boston  and 
Pittsburgh  in  this  category  because  they  have  councils  elected 
at  large.  Yet  each  city  has  a  mayor  with  a  veto,  and  Boston 
suffers  from  a  checking  body  called  the  Finance  Commission, 
by  which  Massachusetts  interferes  with  local  self-government. 
The  fact  that  each  city  is  better  governed  than  it  was  under  the 
unmitigated  federal  system  gives  it  neither  finality  nor  the 
commission  plan.  That  the  council  plan  itself  is  not  final  is 
shown  by  the  constant  and  fruitful  experimentation  going  on 
in  charter  making  all  over  the  country.  Whether  the  com- 
missioners shall  be  paid  much  or  nothing;  whether  they  shall 
give  all  of  their  time  or  part  of  it ;  whether  they  shall  be  elected 
to  specified  departments  or  appoint  themselves;  whether  they 
ought  to  number  three,  five,  seven  or  more,  is  still  under  debate. 
The  offspring  of  the  Galveston  plan  will  soon  find  it  hard  to 
identify  their  mother.  The  conservative  mother  is  already 
bewildered  by  the  vagaries  of  her  wild  brood.  Still  the  original 
Galveston  plan  held  the  germ  of  the  improvements  that  have 
followed.  The  Galveston  commission  of  five  members,  serving 
without  pay,  act  as  a  council  and  review  the  work  of  each  in- 
dividual commissioner  in  his  respective  department.  The 
collective  council  is  supreme  over  its  own  members  in  their 
individual  executive  capacity. 

Galveston's  ill  wind  blew  good  to  a  whole  nation. 

The  Ultra  Commission 

It  did  not  take  long  to  improve  upon  the  Galveston  plan. 
While  Texas  cities  were  experimenting,  progressive  spirits  in 
Iowa  borrowed  from  California  as  well  as  from  Texas,  adding 
the  referendum,  the  initiative  and  the  recall,  and  the  Des  Moines 
plan  became  the  standard  instead  of  the  makeshift  Galveston 
plan.  The  more  recent  modifications  are  chiefly  in  two  direc- 
tions —  the  single  paid  executive  and  the  all-inclusive  commis- 
sion.    These  two  movements  are  not  mutually  exclusive.     All 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  385 

of  the  municipal  funclions  may  come  within  the  survey  of  the 
council,  and  paid  experts,  or  one  manager  with  subordinates, 
may  be  responsible  to  the  council. 

St.  Paul  and  Chattanooga  are  examples  of  cities  that  are  trying 
to  concentrate  all  municipal  functions  under  one  council.  If  it 
is  desirable  to  have  one  commissioner  in  exclusive  charge  of 
the  police  and  fire  departments,  why  not  have  another  supervise 
the  schools  and  the  Ubrary?  If  one  community  prefers  the 
independent  library  or  school  board,  another  may  choose  to 
retain  the  park  board.  Sometimes  it  is  not  possible  to  in- 
corporate a  function  because  of  inheritance  or  franchise.  If 
there  is  no  such  obstacle,  why  not  avoid  the  time-dishonored 
conflict  and  confusion?  It  is  coming  to  be  seen  in  most  cities 
that  the  educational  system  must  include  the  provision  of  books 
and  perhaps  recreation;  St.  Paul  unites  schools  and  library 
under  one  commissioner.  The  school  system  is  increasingly  the 
medium  for  supervising  the  health  of  children;  Chattanooga 
has  a  Commissioner  of  Health  and  Education. 

The  spirit  of  the  council  plan  is  that  of  the  twentieth  century. 

It  is  not  so  revolutionary  to  put  all  of  the  municipal  depart- 
ments under  one  council  as  it  was  to  abandon  the  historic 
separation  of  executive  and  legislative.  The  issue  is:  do  we 
want  scientific  government  or  grandfather  government?  St. 
Louis  or  Galveston  might  find  temporarily  a  loss  in  efficiency  in 
putting  the  library  under  the  general  government.  Chicago 
might  object  to  surrendering  the  special  taxing  powers  that 
make  the  South  Park  Commission  so  capable.  What  the  citizen 
is  coming  to  see  is  that  these  local  efficiencies  reconcile  him 
to  general  misgovernment.  The  imagination  of  the  average 
citizen  is  quickened  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  govern- 
mental functions.  Rarely  does  the  able  member  of  a  park, 
school  or  library  board  contribute  anything  to  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  municipal  government. 

Instead  of  immortalizing  themselves  by  designing  a  nobler 
structure  for  democracy,  most  board  members  have  their  honored 
names  chiseled  on  the  corner  stone  of  a  public  building. 

When  a  city  has  burned  its  bridges  the  critic  may  ask :  why 
is  not  the  government  ideal?  In  charter  making  most  cities 
do  not  burn  all  of  their  bridges.  St.  Paul  has  done  well,  but  re- 
lies still  on  some  old  ferries  or  pontoons.     In  a  document  of 


386  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

108  pages  —  ten  times  as  much  as  it  needed  —  the  St.  Paul 
charter  devotes  750  words  to  street  sprinkling,  a  subject  to 
be  covered  by  statute,  not  by  charter.  It  is  given  very  limited 
powers  of  municipal  ownership.  It  provides  the  same  salary  for 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  as  for  the  Commissioner  of 
Parks,  Playgrounds  and  Public  Buildings,  but  provides  for  a 
superintendent  of  schools  at  a  still  higher  salary.  The  remuner- 
ation of  the  school  superintendent  is  fixed  in  the  charter  but  not 
that  of  the  librarian  or  park  superintendent. 

Every  charter  is  encumbered  with  some  dead  wood  impeding 
the  path  to  democratic  administration. 

The  Organic  Council 

There  are  many  compromises  with  the  council  plan  owing  to 
local  political  pressure  or  constitutional  limitations  or  the  lon- 
gevity of  the  unthinking.  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis  are  com- 
pelled by  the  "home  rule"  charter  granted  to  them  by  the 
Missouri  legislature  to  have  at  least  the  semblance  of  two 
councils.  It  is  doubtful,  then,  whether  the  Kansas  City  "com- 
mission" is  a  joke  on  the  city  or  the  state.  St.  Louis  has  taken 
a  big  stride  forward  in  its  new  charter,  but  frankly  surrendered 
to  the  inevitable.  While  some  cities  are  compromising,  logic 
is  emerging.  The  latest  word  in  the  council  plan  might  deceive 
the  layman.  The  city  manager  is  an  office  created  under  the 
old  division  of  functions  in  Sumter,  South  Carolina,  but  it  may 
prove  to  be  the  indispensable  complement  to  the  commission. 
By  the  use  of  it  cities  have  come  nearer  to  an  organic  council 
plan  of  government  than  through  any  other  American  experi- 
ment. 

The  city  manager  is  no  more  to  be  confused  with  the  business 
man's  mayor  than  the  laboratory  method  of  General  Gorgas  is 
to  be  confused  with  the  rough  riding  of  Colonel  Roosevelt. 

The  city  manager  is  the  paradox  of  an  all-powerful  executive 
absolutely  subordinate  to  the  council.  He  is  preferably  free 
from  civil  service  restrictions,  as  in  Cadillac,  Michigan.  In 
Dayton,  unfortunately,  the  city  manager  has  been  made  subject 
to  recall  by  the  voters  and  his  staff  subjected  to  civil  service 
examinations.  The  whole  purpose  of  the  position  is  frustrated 
unless  the  manager  is  left  as  free  in  administration  as  the  council 


^  3 


o  ^ 


MUNICIPAL  ADMINISTRATION  387 

is  in  legislation.  The  people  m;iy  properly  veto  or  advise  the 
legislature,  but  their  will  can  only  be  executed  by  an  officer  free 
to  use  his  technical  skill,  to  be  judged  only  by  results.  As  the 
council  must  be  responsible  only  to  the  voter,  so  the  manager 
must  be  responsible  only  to  the  council.  Whether  a  city  has 
one  executive  or  several  the  city  manager  idea  represents  the 
high  water  mark  in  municipal  statesmanship  —  a  public  servant 
chosen  from  the  world  at  large,  free  from  local  entanglements 
and  personal  prejudices. 

The  opposition  of  politicians  to  the  commission  plan  is  re- 
doubled against  the  city  manager.  If  election  at  large  instead 
or  by  wards  and  the  concentration  of  authority  harass  the 
boss,  how  much  more  disturbing  is  the  giving  of  the  fattest  plum 
in  the  city  government  to  a  stranger?  It  is  one  of  the  most 
hopeful  marks  of  municipal  advance  that  almost  all  of  the 
twenty-five  cities  operating  under  the  city  manager  plan  in 
January,  1915,  had  drawn  their  managers  from  a  distance.  It 
will  take  some  time  to  persuade  all  of  the  cities  to  merge  all  of 
their  functions  under  the  council  and  to  give  the  manager  a 
perfectly  free  administrative  hand,  but  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge this  is  the  goal  of  democratic  government. 

Democracy  demands  that  the  people  and  their  representatives 
enjoy  mutual  trust. 

Popular  Rule 

The  system  of  checks  was  devised  by  men  who  distrusted  the 
people.  When  a  simpler  and  more  direct  plan  is  substituted 
it  is  illogical  to  deny  the  public  every  check  on  their  servants, 
as  is  done  in  Galveston.  The  council  must  be  elected  at  large 
to  avoid  petty  politics  and  the  picayunish  men  called  to  office 
by  the  old  ward  system.  Yet  a  handful  of  the  best  men  in 
the  city  can  get  completely  out  of  touch  with  the  people  unless 
the  public  is  educated,  with  its  servants,  by  direct  legislation. 
The  referendum  is  not  merely  a  check  on  representatives ;  it  is 
a  device  for  sounding  and  articulating  pubHc  opinion.  This  is 
why  it  must  be  accompanied  by  the  initiative.  Otherwise  the 
old  weakness  of  American  government  —  reliance  on  the  issues 
paraded  in  the  heat  of  a  campaign  —  will  exonerate  councilmen 
who  plead  ignorance  of  the  public's  wishes.  It  has  been  a  good 
instinct  of  the  charter  makers  that  they  have  almost  universally 


388  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

followed  the  lead  of  Des  Moines  instead  of  Galveston  in  adopting 
the  initiative,  the  referendum  and  the  recall.  The  recall  has 
been  little  used  and  only  occasionally  abused.  It  will  doubt- 
less fall  into  disuse  when  it  and  the  other  methods  of  popular 
control  change  the  character  of  pubHc  servants,  as  they  are 
rapidly  doing.  Up  to  the  end  of  191 4  two-thirds  of  200  cities 
possessing  all  three  of  these  popular  instruments  had  used  none 
of  them. 

"A  watched  pot  never  boils"  over. 

Electing  councilmen  at  large  does  not  secure  majority  rep- 
resentation. Neither  does  the  primary  system  nor  a  second 
election.  Over  forty  cities  have  therefore  adopted  the  method 
of  preferential  voting.  The  voter  expresses  his  first,  second 
and  other  choices.  This  not  only  prevents  the  easy  triumph  of 
the  corrupt  element  in  a  town  over  the  probably  divided  better 
elements ;  it  does  away  with  blind  hero  worship ;  it  enables  the 
voter  to  indorse  all  the  desirable  candidates,  and  stops  his  pusil- 
lanimous and  enervating  contentment  with  the  least  undesirable 
candidate.  This  method,  made  popular  by  its  original  success 
in  Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  now  employed  in  a  city  so  large 
as  Cleveland,  would  probably  have  given  Chicago  a  mayor 
free  from  ring  pohtics  at  the  last  election.  The  woman  voter  — 
that  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  corrupt  politicians  and  the  privileged 
classes  —  could  have  nominated  a  first-class  man  for  mayor 
under  the  plan  of  the  preferential  vote. 

The  equal  suffrage  vote  has  met  the  expectations  of  neither  its 
passionate  friends  nor  its  honest  critics.  It  has,  however,  shown 
the  greatest  virtue  demanded  in  the  present  state  of  municipal 
politics  —  non-partisanship.  The  women  of  California  favored 
fermentation;  the  women  of  Oregon  opposed  the  distiller. 
The  women  of  Seattle  switched  on  the  recall  of  mayor,  but  they 
were  not  in  subjection  to  the  men.  The  women  of  Denver 
have  been  quite  indispensable  in  keeping  Judge  Lindsey  in  office 
in  the  face  of  the  foulest  campaign  of  viHfication  and  perjury 
that  any  public  official  in  an  American  city  has  had  to  face. 
Repeated  efforts  have  been  made  to  trap  the  women  voters  as 
well  as  the  little  judge  by  those  personal  slanders  to  which  the 
cave  man  and  the  society  woman  think  the  fair  sex  susceptible. 
Their  constancy  has  been  all  the  more  creditable  in  Colorado, 
where  the  voices  of  many  women  have  been  hushed  by  economic 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  389 

compulsion.  The  women  have  come  off  with  flying  colors  in 
their  first  mayoralty  election  in  Chicago.  As  large  a  propor- 
tion of  women  as  of  men  voted,  but  their  smaller  numbers  per- 
mitted the  men  to  foist  on  them  two  ring  candidates  for  mayor. 
They  still  showed  their  independence  by  choosing  councilmen 
even  more  faithfully  than  the  men  from  the  Municipal  Voters' 
League's  non-partisan  list.  In  two  instances  they  defeated 
disreputable  candidates  that  the  men's  votes  would  have 
elected. 

The  character  of  the  polling  places  in  Chicago  has  so  changed 
that  a  gentleman  can  visit  them  without  offense. 

With  the  mature  intelligence  of  both  sexes  using  the  preferen- 
tial ballot  only  majority  rule  is  secured.  Government  of  the 
people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people  is  still  roughly  ap- 
proximated. Proportional  representation  offers  a  still  more 
democratic  representation.  If  there  are  5000  voters  and  five 
offices  to  be  filled,  why  should  not  each  1000  voters  have  a  rep- 
resentative? It  is  quite  common  in  American  cities  for  thou- 
sands of  people  to  be  unrepresented  under  any  of  the  familiar 
electoral  methods.  The  proportional  plan  enables  any  sub- 
stantial group  of  citizens  to  secure  a  voice  in  the  government. 
If  radicals  and  cranks  could  take  advantage  of  it,  so  could  stand- 
patters and  reactionaries.  Then  there  need  be  no  talk  of 
penalizing  the  non-voter,  as  Kansas  City  tried  to  do  by  a  poll 
tax  imposed  on  those  who  abstained  from  voting.  This  was 
fortunately  declared  unconstitutional. 

The  way  to  make  patriotic  citizens  is  to  insure  their  repre- 
sentation. 

Home  Rule 

When  the  municipal  machinery  has  been  thoroughly  democ- 
ratized, it  must  still  be  protected  from  the  sabotage  of  the  state 
legislature.  The  municipality  is  the  creature  of  the  state. 
It  advances  by  special  legislation  until  the  state  grants  it  home 
rule.  Often  the  state  has  wantonly  interfered  with  the  self- 
government  of  a  city.  This  has  generally  been  in  the  interest 
of  a  national  party  or  special  privilege.  The  Pennsylv^ania 
legislature  has  read  municipal  officials  out  of  office  in  defiance 
of  their  constituents.  The  so-called  ripper  bills,  removing  the 
elected  officials  of  Pennsylvania  cities,  are  the  climax  of  step- 


390  AMERICAN   MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

motherly  legislation.  Among  the  gross  impertinences  on  which 
the  legislature  of  New  York  State  squandered  its  time  in  1912 
were  bills  to  create  a  board  of  sewer  commissioners  for  the 
village  of  Albion ;  giving  the  Buffalo  council  the  right  to  fix 
the  salary  of  the  superintendent  of  education ;  changing  the 
title  of  sergeants  of  police  in  Buffalo  to  lieutenants  of  police; 
raising  the  salaries  of  the  aldermen  of  Elmira  from  $100  to  $200 ; 
providing  for  a  fire  marshal  in  Ithaca  ;  authorizing  the  licensing 
of  dogs  in  the  village  of  Saratoga  Springs ! 

Even  Albany  lacks  home  rule,  but  it  has  two  Houses,  and 
Barnes. 

Another  method  of  interfering  with  self-government  in  cities 
is  the  one  employed  to  keep  workingmen  from  being  patriotic 
citizens  —  the  injunction.  Tom  Johnson  in  Cleveland  had  over 
fifty  injunctions  served  on  him  to  prevent  his  doing  what  every 
honest  man  now  indorses.^ 

The  latest  and  most  subtle  trick  of  special  privilege  to  under- 
mine popular  government  is  the  state  commission  for  the  regula- 
tion of  public  utiUty  corporations  in  cities.  The  patent  argu- 
ments for  state  regulation  are:  (i)  the  danger  of  unregulated 
monopoly;    (2)  the  existence  in  most  states  of  a  commission 

•  Court  injunctions  during  Johnson's  first  term  as  mayor  of  Cleveland  : 
(i)  July  22,   1 90 1.  —  City  board  of  equalization  enjoined  from  increasing  the 
valuation  of  the  Cleveland  Electric  Railway  Company. 

(2)  November  9,  1901.  —  Enjoined  from  entering  into  contracts  for  cheaper 
street  lighting. 

(3)  November  9,  1901.  —  Enjoined  from  entering  into  a  contract  for  cheaper 
vapor  lighting. 

(4)  .\pril  6,  1902.  —  Enjoined  by  common  pleas  court  from  carrying  out  three- 
cent  railroad  franchise. 

(s)  April  7,  1902.  —  Enjoined  from  permitting  construction  of  three-cent  fare 
railroad. 

(6)  May  11,  1902.  —  Enjoined  from  carrying  out  three-cent  franchise  by  circuit 
court. 

(7)  June  30,  1902.  —  Injunction  against  three-cent  franchise  made  perpetual. 

(8)  July  19,  1902. — ^  Enjoined  from  considering  the  granting  of  any  franchises. 
Circuit  court. 

(9)  August  9,  1902.  —  Temporary  injunction  by  supreme  court  against  consider- 
ing the  granting  of  any  franchises. 

(10)  August  IS,  1902.  —  Permanent  injunction  from  considering  the  granting  of 
any  franchise. 

(11)  November  19,  1902.  —  Injunction  by  the  supreme  court  removing  the  police 
department  from  the  control  of  the  administration. 

(12)  December  20,  1902.  —  Enjoined  from  making  any  investigation  into  in- 
equalities in  taxation. 

(13)  March  6,  1903.  —  Enjoined  from  making  contracts  for  paving  of  streets. 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  391 

to  regulate  the  corporations  of  the  state;  (3)  the  cities'  fre- 
quent handicap  of  not  being  coextensive  with  their  pubHc  utili- 
ties. These  arguments  are  plausible,  but  in  practice  the  cities, 
not  the  corporations,  are  restricted.  The  state  commissions 
are  too  remote  from  the  municipalities  to  have  a  sympathetic 
understanding  of  their  needs.  They  are  almost  invariably 
more  receptive  to  suggestion  from  private  corporations  than 
from  public  corporations.  In  Boston,  where  the  state  legislature 
sits  a  stone's  throw  from  the  city  council  and  where  the  railway 
commission  has  its  ofBce,  it  is  notorious  that  decisions  have  the 
vise  of  the  corporations  before  they  are  handed  down.  The 
most  flagrant  instance  of  commission  servility  was  the  feeler 
sent  out  by  an  officer  of  the  commission  proposing  a  six-cent 
fare  for  the  Boston  Elevated  Railway. 

In  the  year  19 15  to  propose  a  six-cent  fare  in  a  metropolitan 
community  in  the  face  of  the  experience  of  Columbus,  Cleveland, 
Detroit  and  other  large  cities  is,  conservatively  stated,  naive !  ^ 

The  famous  state  commission  of  Wisconsin  has  not  only 
handed  down  decision  after  decision  favoring  private  over  public 
corporations,  it  has  repeatedly  blocked  the  way  to  municipal 
ownership  at  the  behest  of  private  capital.  In  191 1  the  railway 
commission  of  the  state  of  Washington  was  expanded  into  the 
public  service  commission  to  cover  the  regulation  of  municipal 
utilities.  An  effort  was  made  in  that  legislative  session,  re- 
peated in  each  subsequent  one,  to  include  municipally  owned 
utilities  in  the  scope  of  the  commission.  In  the  light  of  court 
activity  in  Washington,  always  friendly  to  the  private  corpora- 
tion in  the  regulation  of  rates,  the  only  way  to  reduce  rates  to 
the  level  of  those  enjoyed  by  cities  in  other  states  has  been  by 
the  competition  of  public  plants.  This  has  been  so  successful 
in  the  Washington  cities  that  the  same  hand  which  controls 
courts  has  sought  to  rob  the  cities  of  self-government. 

California  has  shown  the  way  out  of  this  tangle  by  the  public 
utility  district.^  Under  Home  Rule  each  geographical  area 
is  self-governing. 

1  See  Chapter  m.  *  See  p.  367. 


392  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Crude  Home  Rule  in  Chicago 

Philadelphia  and  San  Francisco  merge  city  and  county  govern- 
ments in  their  endeavor  to  give  home  rule  to  a  logical  urban 
area.  New  York  has  incorporated  its  chief  historic  divisions 
into  integral  parts  of  the  city,  called  boroughs.  Chicago  has 
adopted  the  mistaken  syndicalist  plan  of  creating  separate 
municipalities  for  different  functions.  It  now  revels  in  twenty- 
two  governments,  and  its  citizens  vote  for  250  officials.  Cook 
County,  within  which  Chicago  lies,  is  governed  by  commissioners 
elected  by  the  men,  the  voters  in  the  city  electing  their  set  and 
the  voters  outside  of  Chicago  electing  another  group.  The 
Sanitary  District  for  the  disposal  of  Chicago's  sewage  extends 
beyond  the  city  limits.  Sixteen  of  the  other  municipalities  are 
park  commissions.  The  other  governing  and  taxing  agencies 
are  the  city  of  Chicago,  the  Board  of  Education,  the  Library 
Board,  and  the  Municipal  Tuberculosis  Sanitarium.  The  chief 
cause  of  this  confusing  multiplication  of  governments  is  the 
debt  limit  of  Chicago,  which  is  circumvented  by  authorizing 
new  taxing  bodies.  The  confusion  is  increased  by  the  fact  that 
the  people  do  not  vote  for  all  of  these  officials,  but  they  do  vote 
for  others. 

Ex-president  Eliot  said  he  did  not  know  enough  to  vote  the 
relatively  simple  Cambridge  ballot.  What  would  a  Radcliffe 
Ph.D.  do  in  Chicago? 

In  addition  to  the  mayor  and  councilmen  Chicago  men  and 
women  voters  elect  the  city  clerk,  city  treasurer,  thirty-one 
municipal  judges,  and  the  bailiff  and  clerk  of  the  Municipal 
Court !  The  court  is  an  elected  but  not  a  taxing  body.  All  of 
the  sixteen  park  commissions  are  independent  taxing  bodies 
over  which  the  city  of  Chicago  has  no  authority.  Any  section 
of  the  city  finding  itself  deficient  in  park  space  may  organize  a 
park  district  and  elect  a  commission.  There  are  also  three 
appointed  park  commissions  for  the  three  geographic  and  his- 
toric sections  of  the  city.  These  all  represent  in  some  measure 
an  effort  at  local  self-government.  But  there  is  also  a  Special 
Park  Commission  for  the  whole  city,  operating  a  bewildering 
system  of  playgrounds  justified  only  by  their  necessity  in  the 
pioneer  stage  of  public  recreation.  The  municipal  government 
of  Chicago  spends  a  httle  more  than  half  of  the  taxes  expended 
in  the  city  for  local  government. 


MUNICIPAL   ADMINISTRATION  393 

Most  Chicagoans  undoubtedly  believe  in  home  rule  for 
Ireland. 

Metropolitan  Boston 

Boston  is  no  longer  "a  state  of  mind  "  ;  it  is  a  fringe  of  piety 
surrounding  the  Irish.  Puritan  "Boston"  is  the  suburban  zone 
about  the  old  city.  Boston  proper  is  a  predominantly  Irish- 
Roman  Catholic  city.  The  Puritan  makes  the  mistake  of 
trying  to  wrest  the  government  of  Boston  from  the  majority. 
It  is  true  that  the  invaders  have  not  governed  Boston  efficiently  ; 
its  tax  rate  is  the  highest  per  capita  in  the  United  States.  But 
the  Puritan  is  as  muddle-headed  as  the  Celt.  Instead  of  working 
out  a  scientific  home  rule  division  of  functions,  both  try  to  govern 
by  main  strength.  The  Irish  home  ruler  saves  his  faith  for  the 
old  sod ;  the  Puritan  devotee  of  states '  rights  falls  back  on  the 
state.  Nevertheless  Boston  is  germinating  the  metropolitan 
government  of  the  future.  At  present,  city,  suburbs  and  state 
are  unsystematically  intertwined.  There  are  forty  municipali- 
ties contiguous  within  fifteen  miles  of  the  State  House.  These 
suburban  communities  are  jealous  of  their  independence.  Many 
of  them  are  still  governed  by  the  historic  town  meeting.  To- 
gether they  doubtless  constitute  the  best  governed  area  in 
America. 

Metropolitan  Boston  bears  eloquent  witness  to  the  superiority 
of  intelligent  citizenship  to  mere  form  of  government. 

The  interference  of  the  state  in  local  affairs  in  Massachusetts 
is  not  so  petty  as  in  New  York  or  Pennsylvania,  but  it  is  constant. 
In  no  state  are  approved  communal  ventures  so  speedily  univer- 
salized for  the  benefit  of  all  its  cities  as  in  Massachusetts.^ 
In  the  complexity  of  Boston's  situation  it  has  been  natural  to 
turn  to  the  state.  As  the  different  metropolitan  functions  have 
developed  at  different  times  and  have  not  always  covered  the 
same  area  it  has  been  equally  natural  to  provide  that  the  com- 
missions should  be  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  familiar 
difficulties  with  police  administration  led  to  a  metropolitan 
police  system,  now  administered  by  a  single  commissioner. 
Metropolitan  water  and  sewerage  boards  have  been  inevitable 
to  meet  the  sanitary  needs  of  so  scattered  a  population.  These 
functions  are  now  united  under  one  board,  showing  some 
progress  in  simplifying  government.     The  Metropolitan  Park 

'  See  pp.  Ill,  116,  124,  140,  182,  228,  229,  260,  307,  356. 


394  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

Board  has  developed  the  best  park  system  in  America,  giving 
the  1,500,000  people  in  the  district  17,000  acres  of  park  space. 
A  state  commission  supervises  the  street  railways  of  these 
municipalities ;  another  controls  the  gas  and  electric  light  com- 
panies ;  others  the  liquor  licenses  and  civil  servants.  The 
Finance  Commission  of  Boston  is  also  appointed  by  the  governor. 
Out  of  this  spectrum  there  begins  to  emerge  a  great,  clear 
light.  Why  not  keep  the  local  governments  for  strictly  local 
afifairs  and  have  a  popularly  elected  commission  embracing  all 
of  the  metropolitan  functions? 

Organic  Home  Rule  in  Los  Angeles 

What  Boston  is  producing  unconsciously  Los  Angeles  is 
creating  by  design.  Without  the  historic  communities  of  the 
Boston  district,  without  their  valuable  political  experiences, 
and  without  their  traditions  and  prejudices,  Los  Angeles  is 
trying  to  design  a  logical  metropoUtan  system.  Ambitious,  radi- 
cal, aided  by  the  California  home  rule  laws  and  the  California 
social  atmosphere  the  City  of  the  Angels  may  deprive  the  city 
of  the  Puritans  of  the  honor  of  showing  the  world  how  to  govern 
a  metropolitan  community.  Los  Angelans  are  accustomed  to 
going  after  anything  they  want.  If  they  want  water,  they  pipe 
it  250  miles. ^  If  they  are  tired  of  being  an  inland  city,  they 
annex  the  most  available  harbor.^  In  191 2  the  citizens  of  Los 
Angeles  adopted  two  charters,  one  for  the  city  and  one  for  the 
county,  embracing  about  a  score  of  communities.  The  county 
charter  gives  home  rule  to  that  unit  of  government,  avoiding 
conflict  with  both  the  city  and  the  state.  The  form  of  govern- 
ment is  the  commission ;  the  county  has  five  commissioners, 
the  members  being  elected  by  districts ;  the  seven  city  com- 
missioners are  elected  at  large.  The  city  charter  provides 
only  for  fundamentals,  details  being  left  to  initiated  ordinances. 

Having  perfect  freedom  in  charter  making  and  aided  by  such 
laws  as  that  for  public  utility  districts  the  city  of  the  Sunset 
Sea  is  once  more  attracting  the  attention  of  municipal  students 
to  the  Southwest.  The  watchword  of  Galveston  was  concen- 
tration ;  that  of  Los  Angeles  is  elasticity.  There  is  between 
Galveston  and  Los  Angeles  not  only  a  decade  of  municipal 
history ;   there  is  an  epoch  ! 

'  See  pp.  88,  89.  '  See  pp.  23,  24. 


CHAPTER  XX 

MUNICIPAL   EFFICIENCY 

Social  Efficiency 

The  superstition  of  municipal  inefficiency  is  passing  with  the 
discovery  of  the  meaning  of  efficiency.  The  inefficiency  of 
American  government  has  been  disheartening  to  the  good  citizen. 
The  efficiency  of  big  business  has  been  demorahzing  to  the  good 
artisan.  The  incapacity  of  the  muddUng  Briton  is  distressing 
to  his  friends ;  the  capacity  of  the  masterful  German  is  terrifying 
to  his  enemies.  Is  not  efficiency  illusory  until  the  goal  is  the 
common  good  ?  If  the  goal  of  organized  industry  is  profits,  it  is  a 
success.  If  its  goal  is  happiness,  it  is  a  failure.  If  the  goal  of 
empire  is  tyranny,  it  is  a  success ;  if  its  goal  is  the  maximum  de- 
velopment of  personality  in  the  masses,  it  is  a  failure. 

The  American  city  has  progressed  against  odds  unknown  to 
the  private  corporation  or  the  imperial  tyrant. 

There  can  be  no  municipal  efficiency  while  public  utilities  are 
in  private  hands.  Yet  it  is  not  possible  to  proceed  logically  to 
municipal  ownership  because  existing  franchises  must  be  re- 
spected ;  most  cities  are  hampered  by  debts  or  debt  limitations 
or  constitutional  Hmitations ;  and  municipal  government  is  not 
reassuring  to  the  type  of  mind  that  must  be  converted  before 
municipal  efficiency  is  possible.  Municipalities  are  relatively 
no  more  inefficient  than  private  business.  Their  difficulty  is  that 
they  must  do  things  on  a  large  arbitrary  scale  while  business 
chooses  its  field  and  its  method.  Within  that  field  and  by  that 
method  it  fails  universally  if  social  efficiency  is  to  be  the  meas- 
ure. For  example,  there  is  no  scientific  transportation  in  Amer- 
ica. One  of  the  best  street  railway  systems  is  that  of  Minne- 
apolis and  St.  Paul,  but  there  is  no  rapid  transit  in  the  Twin 
Cities ;  there  is  no  regulation  of  cabs  and  jitneys  to  fit  a  trans- 
portation system ;   there  is  no  science  in  railway  or  water  termi- 

395 


306  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

nals.     In  fact,  the  ablest  railway  man  of  the  Northwest  has 
blocked  the  way  to  efficiency. 

The  railway  yards  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  in  Philadel- 
phia are  the  best  designed  in  America.  They  are  operated  by 
the  ablest  railway  corporation  in  America.  The  trains  that 
travel  by  various  levels  with  a  maximum  of  convenience  come 
into  Broad  Street  Station  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city,  within 
two  and  a  half  blocks  of  the  other  great  station  of  this  metro- 
poUtan  city,  but  they  come  in  by  stub-end  tracks,  the  acme  of 
waste.  The  passengers  are  discharged  into  a  city  that  has  just 
taken  the  first  halting  step  to  systematize  its  local  transporta- 
tion. The  misgovernment  of  Philadelphia  is  a  by-word,  the 
apathy  of  its  citizens  unparalleled,  but  the  immediate  reason  for 
transportation  inefficiency  is  the  intrinsic  excellence  and  the  in- 
dependence of  management  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  in  the 
segregated  function  it  has  arrogantly  assumed. 

Municipal  efficiency  is  dependent  upon  the  confession  of  in- 
efficiency on  the  part  of  business. 

The  IndianapoUs  gas  company  furnishes  gas  at  55  cents  — 
cheaper  than  most  municipal  plants.  It  does  this  on  a  sliding 
scale  that  permits  increased  dividends  with  reduced  rates.  This 
is  the  business  man's  climax  of  science  and  economy.  The  same 
system  is  the  boast  of  Boston's  gas  company,  saved  from  wreck- 
age by  one  of  the  ablest  of  business  men.  In  neither  city  are 
gas  and  electricity  coordinated.  Lighting,  heating,  transporta- 
tion, water  and  power  have  not  been  unified.  The  economy  is 
no  more  praiseworthy  than  the  economy  of  a  thrifty  housewife 
who  does  nothing  to  solve  the  domestic  labor  problem.  It  is 
not  only  petty;  it  is  stifling.  It  blocks  municipal  efficiency. 
The  few  things  that  are  well  managed  in  IndianapoUs  and  Boston 
are  the  chief  hindrances  to  both  business  and  municipal  effi- 
ciency. Able  business  men  experience  arrested  development 
by  the  success  of  Lilliputian  enterprises.  The  people  are 
blinded  by  the  success  of  these  little  ventures  and  the  failure  of 
the  great  enterprise  of  municipal  government.  They  are  bluffed 
by  the  immature  business  man's  judgment  in  the  face  of  the  un- 
imaginative citizen's  ignorance. 

The  business  man,  the  workingman,  and  the  citizens  of  both 
sexes  must  understand  that  there  was  no  German  industrial  effi- 
ciency until  the  state  purchase  of  railways  and  the  municipal 


MUNICIPAL   EFFICIENCY  397 

purchase  of  public  utilities  set  free  private  capital  and  established 
new  standards  of  service. 


A  Municipal  Program 

A  survey  of  American  municipal  progress  indicates  the  press- 
ing need  and  practical  possibility  of  a  municipal  program.  Each 
city  will  modify  this  program  according  to  its  immediate  needs 
and  potentialities.  If  a  street  railway  or  electric  lighting  or  tele- 
phone franchise  is  expiring,  the  opportunity  is  obvious.  If  the 
time  is  ripe  for  charter  revision,  it  ought  to  be  seized.  If  the 
schools  can  be  socialized  or  the  police  humanized,  why  loiter? 
If  a  city  plan  is  feasible,  let  the  expert  be  called  in.  If  the  work 
is  to  look  to  the  greatest  ultimate  municipal  efficiency,  with  a 
radiating  influence  on  business,  social  and  spiritual  life,  it  must 
follow  the  most  scientific  plan  that  can  be  deduced  from  present 
municipal  experience.  A  comprehensive  plan  is  the  greatest 
guarantee  of  economy  and  the  greatest  inspiration  to  effort. 

There  are  two  fundamental  principles  in  all  public  work: 
never  make  haste ;   never  waste  time ! 

Municipal  reform  will  not  be  permanent  unless  municipal 
functions  are  of  increasing  importance.  However,  since  admin- 
istrative reform  is  in  the  air  and  cities  must  be  emancipated 
from  the  dead  hand  of  the  past,  the  time  is  ripe  for  each  city  to 
seciire  a  small  unpaid  council  (p.  384)  on  which  its  best  talent 
will  be  induced  to  serve  by  ease  of  election  and  unmistakable 
responsibility  on  their  part  and  that  of  the  citizens  (p.  387). 
They  should  be  elected  at  large  by  proportional  representation 
(p.  389)  or  at  least  by  the  preferential  ballot  (p.  388).  The 
citizens  should  enjoy  the  use  of  the  initiative,  referendum  and 
perhaps  the  recall  (p.  387),  in  order  that  they  may  be  educated 
to  understand  government  and  may  inform  their  representatives 
of  the  current  state  of  public  opinion.  Under  the  council 
should  be  a  manager  or  managers,  appointed  on  good  behavior, 
responsible  only  to  the  council,  chosen  from  anywhere,  and 
given  absolute  freedom  (p.  386). 

The  council-manager  government  opens  the  door  to  a  career 
for  the  ablest  young  men  who  will  not  have  to  sell  themselves 
to  business  or  risk  their  reputations  in  politics. 

Home  rule  is  indispensable   to  municipal   efficiency.     The 


398  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL   PROGRESS 

cities  must  be  free  to  own  and  operate  such  utilities  as  they 
choose  (p.  389).  They  must  have  the  maximum  of  elasticity, 
going  beyond  their  boundaries  when  desirable  in  the  operation 
of  a  public  utility  (p.  367),  and  buying  in  excess  of  immediate 
needs  if  they  can  thereby  enjoy  the  advantages  commonly 
claimed  by  business  (p.  369).  They  must  be  free  to  merge  such 
functions  as  water  and  light  or  school  and  library  or  parks  and 
recreation  at  their  own  convenience,  and  speedily,  in  order  to 
compete  with  private  business  on  its  own  terms  (p.  374).  The 
city  must  have  its  own  bureau  of  municipal  research  (p.  380)  and 
be  free  from  the  interference  of  state  utility  commissions  (p.  390). 
None  of  these  privileges  need  interfere  with  the  corresponding 
right  of  the  state  or  the  nation  to  have  home  rule  within  the  city 
limits  in  those  functions  that  pertain  to  state  or  nation. 

Obviously  the  national  political  parties  of  this  country  are  as 
alien  to  the  government  of  the  American  city  as  the  political 
parties  of  any  other  nation. 

A  City  Plan 

When  a  city  has  secured  a  reasonably  simple  form  of  govern- 
ment and  equal  suffrage  (p.  388),  or  even  before,  if  these  are  not 
immediately  practicable,  it  must  have  a  city  plan  (p.  326).  A 
thousand  dollars,  or  several  thousand,  spent  in  the  employment  of 
a  civic  expert  is  the  cheapest  investment  a  city  or  a  group  of 
public-spirited  citizens  can  make.  Good  transportation  is  prob- 
ably the  city's  greatest  physical  necessity.  This  involves  a 
union  railway  station  (p.  13),  unless  the  population  is  over  half 
a  million ;  the  gradual  elimination  of  grade  crossings ;  through 
routes  on  both  steam  and  electric  lines  (p.  30) ;  consoHdation 
of  all  local  lines,  including  cabs  and  carts;  exclusively  munici- 
pally owned  rapid  transit  in  big  cities  (p.  52),  a  share  in  the  prof- 
its, in  addition  to  reasonable  fares,  to  provide  for  municipal 
ownership  (p.  43) ;  the  municipal  direction  of  transportation  to 
relieve  congestion  and  build  up  the  city  in  the  most  desirable 
way,  regardless  of  private  speculation  (p.  331). 

A  city  plan  will  pay  for  itself  many  times  every  year  in  the 
location  of  thoroughfares  and  their  proper  treatment  (p.  334). 
Each  city  requires  a  study  of  street  construction  with  reference 
to  its  pecuHar  needs  (Chapter  IV).     Ail  of  the  utilities  that  use 


MUNICIPAL   EFFICIENCY  399 

the  streets  will  be  brought  under  municipal  supervision  as  speed- 
ily as  possible  with  a  view  to  ultimate  municipal  ownership.  A 
municipal  conduit  system  is  indispensable  (p.  64).  There  should 
be  a  rivalry  among  all  cities  to  see  which  will  be  the  first  to  dispose 
of  its  wastes  without  cost  (p.  78) .  An  adequate  system  of  munici- 
pal transportation  could  justify  itself  by  carrying  the  city  wastes 
off  every  night  and  conveying  the  school  children  to  and  from 
rural  schools  (p.  83).  Economies  would  have  to  be  effected  by 
correlating  all  the  utilities  that  could  be  operated  together 
with  advantage  (p.  68).  A  similar  economical  location  and  man- 
agement of  schools,  libraries,  playgrounds,  social  centers,  mu- 
seums, gymnasiums,  baths,  and  parks  would  result  from  scientific 
city  planning  (p.  357). 

If  an  architect  is  employed  to  build  a  house,  why  should  ama- 
teurs try  to  build  cities? 

The  City's  Life 

The  city  must  have  an  accurate  record  of  its  population  — 
birth  registration,  diseases,  accidents  (p.  107).  Motherhood 
must  be  revered  (p.  115).  The  people  must  be  better  housed 
(p.  109) ;  the  city  kept  clean  (p.  73) ;  food  and  milk  protected 
(pp.  Ill,  113);  pure  water  must  be  had  in  abundance  for  all 
desirable  private  and  public  uses  (Chapter  VI) ;  the  health  of 
babies  and  children  must  be  supervised  that  the  coming  genera- 
tion shall  be  favored  (pp.  116,  118);  every  bearer  of  disease 
must  be  annihilated  (pp.  122,  124,  125,  127,  129). 

Health  will  be  spelled  in  capitals,  meaning  physical,  eco- 
nomic, spiritual,  communal  health. 

Life  and  property  will  be  protected  by  adequate  fire  and 
police  departments  (Chapter  VIII).  These  will  only  be  efl5- 
cient  when  all  the  departments  of  protection  and  health  are 
coordinated  and  the  employees  given  the  maximum  of  encour- 
agement to  unstinted  service.  The  standards  of  private  business 
will  no  more  give  efficiency  than  they  would  in  the  army.  Fire 
departments  will  be  improved  not  merely  by  better  apparatus 
(p.  130) ;  policemen  will  have  a  new  conception  of  their  duties 
by  being  associated  with  policewomen,  by  going  to  a  court  trans- 
formed by  a  new  attitude  toward  the  victims  of  society  (p.  139). 
Moral  deficiency  will  be  measured  like  physical  deficiency  to 


400  AMERICAN  MUNICIPAL  PROGRESS 

see  how  quickly  the  sufferer  can  be  set  free  for  social  usefulness 
(p.  157).  Juvenile  courts,  psychopathic  institutes,  boards  of 
public  welfare,  employment  agencies  will  recognize  the  unde- 
sirableness  of  a  fringe  of  failure  about  the  city  (pp.  165-169). 
Outdoor  education  (p.  195),  vocational  training  (pp.  214-224), 
education  for  adults  (p.  225)  will  set  standards  of  efficiency  un- 
known in  the  business  world.  The  saloon,  the  brothel,  com- 
mercial amusements,  will  find  cut-throat  competition  in  the 
community  uses  of  leisure  instead  of  indorsement  in  the  cut- 
throat competition  of  business  (Chs.  XIV,  XV,  XVI). 

The  relaxation  of  leisure  will  relieve  the  tension  of  labor; 
recreation  will  build  communal  life  anew. 

The  hard-headed,  practical  citizen  will  have  to  learn  the  im- 
portance of  team  play.  People  need  symbols.  Witness  the 
power  of  destruction  behind  the  Kaiser  or  the  power  of  sacrifice 
behind  the  cross !  Games,  spectacles,  festivals,  pageants  (pp. 
321,  324)  are  as  indispensable  to  efficiency  as  card  catalogues  or 
ledgers.  There  can  be  no  municipal  efficiency  worthy  of  the 
name  until  all  of  the  people  are  consciously  united.  The  social 
center  (Chapter  XIV)  is  as  necessary  as  the  bureau  of  municipal 
research.  Democratic  festivals  are  needed  to  beat  Tammany; 
pageants  may  undermine  special  privilege.  Scientific  taxation, 
municipal  ownership  and  city  reconstruction  can  be  only  spas- 
modic or  sporadic  until  the  schoolhouse  and  the  city  hall  cease 
to  be  the  haunt  of  the  time-server  and  become  the  shrines  of  de- 
mocracy to  which  all  the  people  make  stated  pilgrimages. 

A  simple  government  that  the  people  can  understand  is  emerg- 
ing from  the  complexity  that  caused  the  people  to  seem  incom- 
petent. The  municipality  is  becoming  more  efficient  in  direct 
proportion  to  its  increasing  democracy.  As  the  city  is  able  to 
possess  the  remunerative  functions  its  business  methods  improve. 
As  it  lays  its  plans  for  the  future  with  scientific  vision  its  imme- 
diate economies  multiply.  As  it  spends  more  for  recreation  and 
education  the  facilities  are  better  administered  and  the  standards 
rise.  As  the  citizens  grow  strong  in  communal  achievement  they 
are  more  kindly  to  the  deficient.  The  contempt  of  the  self-made 
man  for  the  unfortunate  is  not  shared  by  the  community-made 
citizen.  With  consideration  for  the  lives  of  the  weak  comes  a 
finer  conception  of  the  worth  of  life  to  the  strong. 

A  niggardly  public  life  that  made  the  citizen  contemptuous 


MUNICIPAL   EFFICIENCY  401 

of  public  officials  is  yielding  to  a  dignilied  and  beautiful  public 
service  that  inspires  love  for  the  community  and  respect  for  its 
servants. 

The  community  life  is  not  sound  so  long  as  it  is  negative.  Too 
much  effort  has  been  necessary  to  combat  the  grafter,  the  lame 
duck,  the  parasite,  the  tax  dodger,  the  franchise  seeker,  the 
apathetic  citizen.  The  community  talent  is  more  and  more 
freed  for  affirmative  tasks.  Public  office  becomes  more  hon- 
orable and  citizenship  more  constructive  as  the  work  of  the 
municipality  increases.  The  progressive  satisfaction  of  the 
wants  of  all  of  the  people  has  ceased  to  be  a  Utopian  ideal ;  it  is 
the  only  reasonable  municipal  program.  A  social  efficiency  be- 
yond the  dreams  of  corporate  "efficiency  engineers"  is  in  sight 
of  the  managers  of  the  democratically  governed  municipaUty. 

"Bliss  was  it  in  that  dawn  to  be  alive, 
But  to  be  young  was  very  heaven  1" 


99 


APPENDIX 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Conservation  of  the  City 

I.  Population 

The  shifting  of  population  in  American  cities  presents  most  interesting 
phenomena  but  few  absolute  principles.  In  general,  cities  naturally  have 
the  largest  possibility  of  doubling  or  trebling  their  population  when  they 
are  small.  Southern  and  Western  cities  have  greater  opportunity  for 
expansion  than  older  cities  of  the  East,  but  the  exceptions  are  quite  as 
interesting  as  the  cities  that  conform  to  these  doubtful  generalizations.  In 
the  last  decade  the  cities  with  a  population  of  over  ^  a  million  had  an  average 
growth  of  over  22  per  cent.  Those  between  \  a  million  and  5  a  million 
averaged  29  per  cent,  or  including  the  cities  of  over  ^  a  million,  26  per  cent. 
The  cities  with  a  population  in  1900  of  between  100,000  and  250,000  grew 
39  per  cent  on  the  average,  or  excluding  Los  Angeles,  which  grew  211  per 
cent,  the  average  of  this  third  class  of  cities  is  only  one  point  higher  than 
the  second  class,  namely  30,  while  the  growth  of  all  cities  of  over  100,000 
is  34  per  cent,  aided  by  Los  Angeles  and  other  larger  cities  of  exceptional 
growth. 

Los  Angeles  is  the  only  city  of  100,000  population  that  doubled  in  size 
in  ten  years,  but  four  cities  passed  the  100,000  mark  by  reason  of  gaining 
over  100  per  cent  in  the  decade.  Of  the  cities  that  gained  50  per  cent  or 
more,  7  are  in  the  East,  9  in  the  Middle  West,  6  in  the  South  and  8  in  the 
West.  This  gives  a  preponderance  for  the  East  and  the  Middle  West,  where 
tJie  number  of  cities  increases  the  possibility  of  growth  and  offsets  the  new- 
ness of  the  West  and  South.  Thirteen  cities  gained  over  100  per  cent  be- 
tween 1900  and  1910.  Five  of  these  are  in  the  South,  one  in  the  East  and 
7  in  the  W^est.  The  greatest  expansion  came  to  Oklahoma  City,  which  had 
a  growth  of  540  per  cent,  starting  with  10,000  inhabitants  in  1900.  The 
next  largest  growth  was  245  per  cent  in  Birmingham,  a  city  of  38,000  at  the 
earlier  period.  Los  Angeles  came  next  with  211  per  cent  growth,  followed 
by  Seattle  with  194  per  cent.  Spokane  increased  almost  as  much —  183 
per  cent.  Fort  Worth  had  a  175  per  cent  growth.  Then  Schenectady 
saved  the  East  by  squeezing  with  130  per  cent  ahead  of  Portland,  Oregon, 
with  129  per  cent.  Oakland  grew  124  per  cent,  Tacoma  122  per  cent, 
Dallas  1x6  per  cent,  Wichita  112  per  cent  and  Jacksonville  103  per  cent. 
The  largest  cities  to  develop  phenomenally  were  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Seattle,  starting  with  80,000,  Portland  with  90,000  and  Oakland  with 
66,000,  followed  in  the  wake  of  Los  Angeles.     It  is  easy  to  account  for  the 

403 


404  APPENDIX 

growth  of  the  cities  in  the  Southwest  and  West,  but  exceptional  local 
conditions  favored  Schenectady,  Wichita  and  Jacksonville  that  outstripped 
all  neighboring  cities,  except  that  Wichita  must  be  recorded  as  within  the 
range  of  Oklahoma  City. 

Striking  instances  of  suspended  animation  are  Baltimore  that  grew  less 
than  lo  per  cent,  Cincinnati  and  Lowell  12  per  cent  and  Louisville  9  per 
cent.  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  lost  in  population  apparently,  but  had  prob- 
ably stuflfed  the  records  in  1900  and  is  now  paying  the  penalty. 

After  recounting  the  achievement  of  the  smaller  cities,  it  is  still  note- 
worthy that  Chicago  almost  kept  up  with  the  average  growth  of  all  cities 
of  over  50,000  and  did  sustain  the  average  of  those  over  250,000.  New 
York,  the  octopus,  was  exceeded  in  growth  by  only  48  cities  out  of  209. 
The  growth  of  Greater  New  York  was  nearly  39  per  cent,  to  which  the 
Borough  of  the  Bronx  contributed  a  gain  of  115  per  cent  and  Queens  85 
per  cent. 

CHAPTER   II 
The  City  Portal 

I.  Summary  of  Seattle  Public  Harbor  Improvements,  igi3-igi4 

(1)  Salmon  Bay:  Lake  Washington  ship  canal  pier,  and  fishing  fleet 
haven  —  nearly  complete. 

(2)  Smith's  Cove:  Lumber,  heavy  machinery  and  general  merchandise 
terminal :  nearly  completed. 

(3)  Bell  Street  Wharf  and  Transit  Shed:  Complete. 

(4)  Bell  Street  Concrete  Warehouse  and  Cold  Storage  Plant:  Nearly 
complete. 

(5)  Stacy-Lander  Wharves  and  Transit  Sheds  (American-Hawaiian 
terminal) :  Complete. 

(6)  Whatcom  Avenue  Concrete  Warehouse:   Complete. 

(7)  Hanford  Street  Wharf  and  Transit  Shed:   Practically  complete. 

(8)  Hanford  Street  Public  Grain  Elevator:   Nearing  completion. 

(9)  Spokane  Avenue  Wharf  and  Transit  Shed:   Under  construction. 

(10)  Spokane  Avenue  Concrete  Warehouse:  For  public  fruit  storage  — 
ready  for  contract. 

(11)  Spokane  Avenue  Plant:  For  public,  fish,  cold  storage  and  ice  — 
ready  for  contract. 

(12)  Elliott  Bay  Ferry  and  Landings:  Purchased  and  operated  1914. 

(13)  Lake  Washington  Ferry  and  Landings:  Operated  1914. 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  City  Street 

1.    The  income  of  the  commercial  lighting  plants  was  278  million  dollars 
in  1912,  an  increase  of  254  per  cent  in  a  decade.     Their  expenses  were  217 


APPENDIX  405 

million,  an  increase  of  246  per  cent.  Their  employees  increased  only  163 
per  cent.  The  income  of  municipal  plants  increased  230  per  cent  in  ten 
years,  their  expenses  222  per  cent,  their  employees  only  132  per  cent.  The 
commercial  plants'  income  increased  eight  and  one-half  times  as  fast  as  the 
plants  multiplied ;  the  municipal  plants  only  two  and  one-half  times,  but 
both  operated  with  proportionately  fewer  employees. 

2.  Display  Lighting 

Sandusky,  Ohio,  has  collected  the  following  information  concerning  how 
display  lighting  is  paid  for  in  other  cities : 

Dayton,  O.  —  Lighting  company  pays  for  installation,  city  for  one- 
eighth  of  current,  owners  and  tenants  for  seven-eighths.  Toledo,  O.  — 
Cost  of  all  lighting,  including  residence,  assessed  on  property  owners.  Akron, 
O.  —  All  cost  of  white  way  lighting  assessed  against  owners.  Aberdeen, 
S.  D.  —  Installation  paid  for  by  property  owners,  who  also  pay  for  current. 
Atlanta,  Ga.  —  Installation  by  property  owners  and  tenants ;  current  paid 
for  by  city.  Aurora,  111.  —  Merchants  assessed  $20.90  for  installation,  city 
furnishes  current.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  —  Business  men  and  company  installed 
system ;  city  pays  for  current.  Cheyenne,  Wyo.  —  Merchants  pay  for 
installation  and  current.  Chicago.  —  Company  installed,  merchants  pay 
for  current.  Des  Moines,  la.  —  Property  owners  installed  system,  tenants 
pay  for  current.  Duluth,  Minn.  —  Property  owners  pay  for  system  and 
current.  Fort  Dodge,  la.  —  Property  owners  pay  four-sevenths,  tenants 
three-sevenths.  Gary,  Ind.  —  Property  owners  pay  for  installation,  city 
furnishes  current.  Great  Falls,  Mont.  —  Property  owners  pay  for  installa- 
tion and  current.  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  —  Property  owners  pay  for  installa- 
tion and  seven-eighths  of  current,  city  paying  one-eighth.  Minneapolis, 
Minn.  —  Property  owners  pay  for  installation,  city  furnishes  current. 
Mishawaka,  Ind.  —  Merchants  pay  for  current.  Superior,  Wis.  —  Prop- 
erty owners  pay  for  installation,  tenants  pay  7.2  cents  per  front  foot  per 
month.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  —  Merchants  pay  for  installation  and  pay  15 
cents  per  front  foot  per  month  for  current.  Wausau,  Wis.  —  Merchants 
pay  for  installation,  city  for  current.  Columbus,  O.  —  Merchants  pay  for 
installation,  municipal  plant  furnishes  current.  Kokomo,  Ind.  —  Merchants 
pay  for  installation,  city  for  current.  Oakland,  Cal.  —  Property  owners 
pay  for  installation,  city  for  current.  Macon,  Ga.  —  Merchants  pay  for 
installation  and  current. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Water  and  Sewerage 

I .  There  are  three  branches  of  the  Boston  metropolitan  sewerage  system. 
The  Charles  River  system  deals  with  the  southern  portion  of  the  metro- 
politan area,  ranging  from  Waltham  through  the  Back  Bay  district  of  Bos- 
ton to  the  connection  with  the  main  Boston  system  in  Huntington  Avenue, 
a  length  of  eight  miles.     The  North  Metropolitan  system,  covering  the 


4o6  APPENDIX 

district  indicated  by  its  name,  has  a  total  length  of  nearly  fifty  miles,  requir- 
ing four  pumping  stations  and  having  its  outfall  at  Deer  Island.  The 
third  branch,  taking  in  the  Neponset  valley,  has  a  length  of  eleven  miles. 

2.  The  following  cities  had  erected  public  comfort  stations  in  1914 :  Al- 
bany, Atlantic  City,  Baltimore,  Boston,  Brooklyn,  Cadillac  (Mich.),  Cam- 
bridge, Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Dallas,  Denver,  Detroit,  Grand 
Rapids  (Mich.),  Hartford,  Holyoke,  Hopkinsville  (Ky.),  Indianapolis, 
Jamaica  (L.  I.),  Johnstown,  Kansas  City  (Mo.),  Lawrence,  Lowell,  Macon, 
Manchester  (N.  H.),  Minneapolis,  Newark  (N.  J.),  New  York,  Oklahoma 
Cit)-,  Omaha,  Pasadena,  Pittsburgh,  Providence,  St.  Louis,  Salt  Lake  City, 
San  Francisco,  Seattle,  Springfield  (Mass.),  Springfield  (111.),  Tacoma,  Troy, 
Washington  (D.  C),  Worcester,  Youngstown. 

3.  The  public  comfort  stations  under  the  Common  in  Boston,  in  the  City 
Hall  Park  and  Bryant  Park  in  New  York,  Grant  Park  in  Chicago,  Union 
Square  in  San  Francisco,  City  Hall  Park  in  Worcester,  the  business  center 
of  Indianapolis,  the  Campus  Martius  in  Detroit,  the  two  on  the  Board 
Walk,  Atlantic  City,  and  the  two  on  Pennsylvania  Avenue  in  Washington 
are  notable. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Public  Health 

1 .  Commissioner  Goldwater  of  New  York  reported  a  further  reduction  of 
that  city's  death  rate  in  19 14  to  13.40  per  1000  population.  Infant  mor- 
tality was  6  per  cent  less  than  before.  In  1914  he  saved  $170,472  out  of 
his  appropriation  of  three  and  one-half  million.  He  had  the  sanitary  code 
virtually  rewritten,  adding  requirements  that  patent  medicines  shall  have 
ingredients  named  on  label;  that  theaters  shall  be  better  ventilated  and 
lighted ;  that  hospitals  and  physicians  shall  report  occupational  diseases 
and  injuries  and  food  poisonings.  It  was  required  that  no  infected  persons 
shall  handle  food;  that  children  shall  be  physically  examined  at  time  of 
entering  school ;  that  owners  or  lessees  of  marsh  lands  shall  fill  them  in  to 
prevent  mosquito  breeding;  that  harmful  dust  be  removed  from  work- 
rooms by  suction  devices.  Among  prohibitions  were  offensive  practices 
in  tobacco  manufacture;  the  free  distribution  of  samples  of  proprietary 
medicines;  unmuzzled  dogs  in  streets;  wood  alcohol  in  preparations  for 
human  food  or  drink.  Also  he  made  regulations  as  to  the  bacterial  content 
of  milk  and  cream  ;  care  of  children's  health  in  day  nurseries ;  handling  and 
storing  food  in  stores,  factories  and  hotels ;  coffin  seals  in  cases  of  death  from 
infectious  diseases. 

2.  The  Tenement  House  Act  for  Towns  (Mass.  191 2)  specifies  that 
no  tenement  house  shall  occupy  more  than  65  per  cent  of  a  corner  lot ; 
nor  more  than  50  per  cent  of  any  other  lot ;  no  tenement  shall  exceed 
in  height  the  width  of  the  widest  street  upon  which  it  stands;  there  must 
be  a  rear  yard  at  least  twenty-five  feet  deep  extending  across  the  full  width 


APPENDIX  407 

of  the  lot;  every  room  must  have  a  window  to  the  outer  air  and  the  area 
must  be  at  least  one-seventh  of  the  floor  space ;  every  apartment  shall  have 
within  it  a  sink  and  water  closet,  both  provided  with  running  water;  no 
room  in  basement  or  cellar  shall  be  occupied  for  living  purposes  and  every 
tenement  house  must  have  two  independent  flights  of  stairs. 

3.  Outdoor  Markets 

Antigo  (Wis.),  Boston,  Chicago,  Denver,  Des  Moines,  Detroit,  Dubuque, 
Duluth,  Grand  Rapids,  Hoboken,  Ithaca,  Joliet,  Los  Angeles,  Louisville, 
Memphis,  Milwaukee,  Newberry  (Pa.),  New  York,  Norfolk,  North  Lansing, 
Oklahoma  City,  Omaha,  Orange,  VcrVa  Amboy,  San  Antonio,  Savannah, 
Sheboygan  (Wis.),  Sioux  City,  South  Bend,  Spokane,  Stevens  Point  (Wis.), 
Tacoma,  Washington  (D.  C),  Wilkes-Barre. 

Indoor  Markets 

Albany,  Baltimore,  Boston,  Buffalo,  Canton,  Charleston  (S.  C),  Chat- 
tanooga, Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Dayton,  Fort  Wayne,  Galveston, 
Grand  Rapids,  Houston,  Indianapolis,  Jackson,  Kansas  City  (Mo.),  Knox- 
ville,  Lansing,  Louisville,  Macon,  Madison,  Nashville,  New  Albany  (Ind.), 
New  Orleans,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  Richmond  (Ind.), 
Richmond  (Va.),  Roanoke  (Va.),  Rochester  (N.  Y.),  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul, 
Scranton,  Seattle,  Toledo,  Washington  (D.  C),  Wichita,  Youngstown. 

4.  The  scope  of  the  work  of  the  department  of  medical  inspection  of 
schools  of  Philadelphia  is  described  as  follows  :  (i)  Detection  and  correction 
of  physical  defects ;  (2)  detection  and  exclusion  of  contagious  disease  cases ; 
(3)  sanitary  inspection  of  school  buildings;  (4)  examination  at  their  homes 
of  absentee  children,  in  order  to  determine  whether  such  children  should 
be  excused  from  school ;  (5)  the  examination  of  applicants  for  the  position 
of  school  janitor ;  (6)  examination  of  high  school  boys  entering  into  athletic 
contests;  (7)  a  clinic  for  the  examination  of  mentally  deficient  children; 
(8)  special  medical  supervision  of  three  open  air  schools ;  (9)  free  vaccina- 
tion of  school  children. 

Rochester  has  1 2  medical  school  inspectors,  1 1  men  and  i  woman,  work- 
ing under  the  direction  of  the  Health  Bureau,  for  the  physical  inspection  of 
19,381  school  children  in  36  public  schools,  an  average  of  1615  pupils  to 
each  medical  inspector.  In  191 2  the  work  of  each  medical  inspector  aver- 
aged as  follows :  vaccinations,  450 ;  visits  to  sick  poor,  200 ;  office  calls  to 
sick  poor,  100;   maternity  cases,  2 ;   insane  e.xaminations,  40. 

The  medical  inspector  is  also  called  upon  to  make  a  weekly  sanitary 
survey  of  the  school,  covering  heat,  lighting,  ventilating  and  cleanliness; 
to  make  a  physical  inspection  of  each  child  during  every  school  year,  and 
to  record  his  findings  on  a  card,  so  arranged  as  to  follow  up  the  child  from 
grade  to  grade,  and  to  present  a  written  statement  on  one  card  of  the  physical 
condition  of  the  child  during  its  entire  school  life. 

5.  An  effective  agitation  against  rats  has  been  carried  on  in  Galveston, 
Seattle,  Natchez,  Mobile,  Charleston  and  Jacksonville.  In  1914  over 
26,000  rats  were  examined  by  the  federal  Public  Health  Service  in  Seattle. 


4o8 


APPENDIX 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Protection 

I .  Macon,  Georgia,  with  a  population  of  40,000,  has  eleven  gasoline  vehi- 
cles. Topeka,  Kansas,  has  eliminated  all  but  two  pieces  of  horse-drawn 
apparatus. 

2.    Comparative  Statement  of  Fire  Protection  Cost 


3.    Municipal  Police  Departments 


No.  of 
Patrol- 

No. OF 

Patrol- 

No. OF 

Patrol- 

Patrol- 
men ON 

Popula- 

Cm 

Population, 
U.  S.  Esti- 

men PER 
10,000 

men  ON 
Duty  per 

men  PER 
Square 

Duty  per 
Square 

tion  per 
Patrol- 

mate, 1914 

Popula- 
tion 

10,000 
Popula- 
tion 

Mile 

OF  City's 

Area 

Mile 

OF  City's 

Area 

man  on 
Duty 

New  York       .     . 

5,333.537 

17 

5-7 

28 

9-3 

1728 

Chicago       .     .     . 

2,393,325 

14 

4-7 

17 

5-7 

2107 

Philadelphia    .     . 

1,657,810 

19 

6.3 

25 

8.3 

1560 

St.  Louis     .    .     . 

734,667 

19 

6.3 

23 

7-7 

1573 

Boston        .     .     . 

733,802 

19 

6.3 

30 

lO.O 

1571 

Cleveland   .     .     . 

639,431 

II 

5.6 

13 

6.5 

1881 

Baltimore   .     .     . 

579,500 

14 

4-7 

25 

8.3 

2204 

Pittsburgh       .     . 

564,878 

12 

4.0 

17 

5-7 

2424 

Detroit        .     .     . 

537,650 

17 

5-7 

21 

7.0 

1774 

San  Francisco 

448,502 

17 

5-7 

17 

5-7 

1692 

Milwaukee       .     . 

417,054 

12 

4.0 

20 

6.7 

2497 

Cincinnati       .     . 

402,175 

13 

4-3 

7 

2-3 

2325 

New  Orleans   .     . 

361,221 

7 

3-5 

I 

0-5 

2937 

Average  13  cities 

15 

5-1 

19 

6.4 

2021 

APPENDIX  409 

4.    American  cities  employing  policewomen  and  the  approximate  number 
employed  in  igi4: 

Aurora  (111.),  i;  Baltimore,  5;  Bellingham  (Wash.),  i;  Boston,  i; 
Chicago,  30;  Colorado  Springs,  i ;  Dayton,  2  ;  Denver,  i  ;  Fargo  (N.  D.),  i  ; 
Grand  Forks  (N.  D.),  i  ;  Jamestown  (N.  Y.),  i  ;  Kansas  City  (Mo.),  i ;  Los 
Angeles,  5  ;  Minneapolis,  2  ;  Omaha,  i  ;  Pittsburgh,  4  ;  Plainfield  (N.  J.),  i ; 
Portland  (Ore.),  i ;  Poughkeepsie,  i ;  Racine  (Wis.),  i ;  Rochester  (N.  Y.), 
i;  St.  Paul,  3;  Salem  (Mass.),  i;  San  Antonio,  i;  San  Francisco,  3; 
Seattle,  5  ;  Sioux  City,  i ;  Superior,  i ;  Syracuse,  i ;  Tacoma,  i ;  Topeka,  2. 


5.  The  figures  for  Chicago  are  more  complete  than  those  of  New  York's 
accidents,  but  show  a  similar  tendency.     The  contrast  between  1910  and 
19 13  may  be  tabulated  as  follows  : 
1910 —  3969  trolley  accidents,  of  which  175  were  fatal. 

1596  horse  and  horse  vehicle  accidents,  of  which  67  were  fatal. 
998  motor  accidents,  of  which  52  were  fatal. 

1913  —  4283  trolley  accidents,  of  which  165  were  fatal. 

1383  horse  and  horse  vehicle  accidents,  of  which  44  were  fatal. 
2029  motor  accidents,  of  which  136  were  fatal. 

6.  List  of  Cities  which  have  had  Vice  Investigations  and  have  made  Reports 

Atlanta,  Baton  Rouge  (La.),  Bay  City,  Boston  (no  report  except  in  Mass.), 
Chicago,  Cleveland,  Denver,  Elmira,  Grand  Rapids,  Hartford,  Kansas  City 
(Mo.),  Lafayette  (Ind.),  Lancaster  (Pa.),  Little  Rock,  Minneapolis,  Newark 
(N.  J.),  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  Portland  (Me.),  Portland  (Ore.), 
Richmond  (Va.),  St.  Louis,  Schenectady,  Shreveport  (La.),  Syracuse. 

State  Commissions  were  appointed  in  Illinois  and  Missouri  in  1913,  but 
have  published  no  reports. 

7.  List  of  Cities  with  Standing  Morals  Commissions 

Chicago,  Denver,  Minneapolis. 

A  Board  of  Public  Morals  was  created  in  the  department  of  public  safety 
in  cities  of  the  second  class  (Pittsburgh  and  Scranton)  in  Pennsylvania  by 
a  1913  act,  for  the  purpose  of  investigation  and  acting  upon  all  questions 
relating  to  the  matter  of  vice  control.  The  board  consists  of  seven  members, 
three  of  whom  maj'  be  women,  appointed  by  the  mayor  and  approved  by  the 
council.  The  board  elects  a  superintendent  from  their  own  number  who  is 
to  give  his  entire  time  to  the  work  of  the  board. 

8.  Red  Light  Injunction  statutes  are  now  in  efifect  in  some  form  in  the 
following  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia  :  Massachusetts,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  Tennessee,  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Kansas, 
South  Dakota,  North  Dakota,  Utah,  Oregon  and  Washington. 


4IO  APPENDIX 

CHAPTER   IX 

Justice  and  Charity 

1.  In  the  juvenile  courts  of  the  following  cities  there  have  been  developed 
one  or  more  specialized  lines  of  social  work  in  connection  with  probation: 
Washington  (D.  C),  Pittsburgh,  Louisville,  Kansas  City  (Mo.),  Portland 
(Ore.),  Seattle,  Des  Moines,  Chicago,  New  York  (Boroughs  of  Richmond 
and  Brooklyn),  Newark  and  Elizabeth  (N.  J.),  Indianapolis,  Salt  Lake  City, 
Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco,  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  Denver,  Cleve- 
land, Columbus,  Toledo,  Grand  Rapids  and  Cincinnati. 

The  list  of  activities  differentiated  from  or  grafted  on  to  the  probation 
departments  includes  placing-out  and  employment  agencies,  clinics,  educa- 
tional classes,  recreational  groups  and  camps,  relief  measures  and  pensions. 

The  Baltimore  Juvenile  Court  claims  to  give  its  wayward  children  the 
benefits  of  a  detention  home  by  farming  them  out  to  private  philanthropies 
(chiefly  ecclesiastical)  at  from  21  to  60  cents  a  day,  whereas  it  costs  $5  in  the 
Washington  and  St.  Louis  Detention  Houses. 

2.  Two  women  assistants  were  appointed  in  the  St.  Louis  Juvenile  Court 
in  January  and  four  in  the  Philadelphia  Municipal  Court  in  March,  1915. 

3.  Department  of  Public  Welfare,  City  of  Cleveland 

Division  of  Health 

Bureau  of  Child  Hygiene 

Bureau  of  Communicable  Diseases 

Bureau  of  Tuberculosis 

Bureau  of  Food  and  Dairy  Inspection 

Bureau  of  Sanitation 

Bureau  of  Laboratories 

Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics 

Division  of  Charities  and  Correction 
City  Hospital 
Outdoor  Relief 
Colony  Farm 

Overlook  Farm  (Tuberculosis  Sanatorium) 
Correction  Farm 
Girls'  Farm 
Boys'  Farm 

Division  of  Employment 
Employment  Bureau 
Immigration  Bureau 
Vocational  Guidance 

Division  of  Recreation 
Use  of  Leisure  Time 
Use  of  Parks 
Use  of  Bathing  Beaches 


APPENDIX 


411 


Use  of  Bath  Houses 

Use  of  Gymnasiums  and  Social  Centers 

Use  of  Playgrounds 

Municipal  Orchestra 

Division  of  Publicity  and  Research 
Collection  of  Social  Data 
Exhibits 
Literature 
Lectures 


4.  Statement  showing  Known  Annual  Expenditures  in  Fourteen  States 
of  the  Union,  under  Mothers'  Relief  Laws,  with  Accompanying  Ap- 
proximate Statistics  relative  to  Same  : 


State  (or  Locauty  in 

Total  Relief 

Granted 

Per  Annum, 

1913-1914 

Number 
OF  Fami- 
lies 
Being 
Reueved 

Average  Cost 
Per  Month 

Age 
LiMir 

Average 
Number 
OF  Chil- 

State) 

Per 

Family 

Per 

Child 

dren 

Per 

Familv 

1.  California         (includes 

Sacramento,  Los  An- 
geles, San  Francisco, 
Oakland,  etc.)       .     . 
Note.  —  San    Francisco 
has  provided  figures 
opposite        included 
above      

2.  Colorado      (City      and 

County  of  Denver) 

3.  Idaho     

4.  Illinois.     Cook  County 

(includes  Chicago) 

5.  Massachusetts.    Boston. 

Prior    to    Nov.    30, 
1914,  $250,000  appro- 
priated     

6.  Minnesota.  Jan.  i,  1914 

Hennepin  County  (in- 
cludes Minneapolis) 
Ramsay  County  (in- 
cludes St.  Paul)    .     . 

7.  Missouri.           Jackson 

County          (includes 
Kansas  City)        .     . 

8.  New  Hampshire.    Con- 

cord     

Q.  New  Jersey.       Hudson 
County  (includes  Jer- 
sey  City).      $35,000 
appropriated  for  191 5 

$450,000.00 

1914-191S 

107,520.00 

10,000.00 
E  1,440.00 

100,253.32 

160,000.00 
24,000.00 

10,612.80 
5,000.00 

8,482.67 

1468 

114 

30 
8 

442 

1500 

113 
75 

64 
65 

$25-54 

21.33 

27.92 
15.00 

24.92 

8.89 

15-94 
10.90 

14.74 
10.87 

$7-53 

8-37 
10.00 

7-56 

6-93 
3-43 

4-21 

4-35 

14 

14 

16 
15 

14 

14 
14 

14 
16 

16 

3-4 

3-3 

3-3 
1-5 

3.3 
2.3 

3-2 

3-S 

2-5 

412 


APPENDIX 


Number 

Average  Cost 

AVERAGB 

Total  Relief 

OF  Fami- 

Per Month 

Number 

State  (or  Locality  in 

Granted 

Per  Annum, 

1913-1914 

lies 

Being 

Relieved 

Age 
Limit 

OF  Chil- 

State) 

Per 
Family 

Per 

ChUd 

dren 

Per 

Family 

lo.  Ohio.     From  May  i  to 

Dec.  IS,  1914.   Ham- 

ilton     County      (in- 

cludes      Cincinnati). 

Appropriation    1914- 

G16 

1915  is  $63,000      .     . 

42,228.00 

364 

21.06 

6.31 

B17 

3-3 

II.  Pennsylvania.          Alle- 

gheny    County     (in- 

cludes Pittsburgh) 

26,000.00 

102 

21.24 

14 

Philadelphia     .     .     . 

131 

24.66 

6.52 

14 

3.8 

12.  Utah.      Salt  Lake  City 

and  County      .     .     . 

9,985-25 

252 

3-31 

IS 

13.  Washington.          Kings 

County         (includes 

Seattle)        .... 

E  30,000.00 

Sio 

510 

14 

2.9 

14.  Wisconsin.    Milwaukee 

237 

13-15 

4.11 

3-2 

Note.  —  E  means  estimated  figure  based  on  highest  and  lowest  figures  available. 

5.  Municipal  lodging  houses  are  also  found  in  Baltimore,  Buffalo,  Cin- 
cinnati, Dayton,  Denver,  Minneapolis,  Providence,  Seattle,  Syracuse 
and  Washington. 


6.  Agreement  between  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Wisconsin,  the 
Common  Council  of  the  City  of  Milwaukee  and  the  Board  of  Super- 
visors of  the  County  of  Milwaukee 

In  pursuance  of  Chapter  462,  Laws  of  19 13,  it  is  hereby  mutually  agreed 
between  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Wisconsin,  the  Common  Council  of 
the  City  of  Milwaukee  and  the  Board  of  Supervisors  of  the  County  of  Mil- 
waukee that  they  will  jointly  conduct  the  Free  Employment  Office  in  Mil- 
waukee according  to  the  following  plan : 

The  Industrial  Commission  will  pay  all  the  salaries  and  administrative 
expenses.  The  Common  Council  and  the  Board  of  Supervisors  will  pay  all 
local  expenses,  including  rent,  light,  heat,  janitor  and  telephone  service.  The 
expenditure  of  the  funds  voted  by  the  City  Council  and  the  Board  of  Super- 
visors shall  be  controlled  and  approved  by  the  Citizens'  Committee  on  Un- 
employment, composed  of  five  members  each  from  the  Common  Council, 
the  County  Board  of  Supervisors,  the  Merchants'  and  Manufacturers'  Asso- 
ciation of  Milwaukee  and  the  Federated  Trades  Council.  The  proportion  in 
which  the  City  and  County  shall  contribute  to  the  maintenance  of  the  office 
shall  be  three  parts  by  the  City  and  two  parts  by  the  County. 


APPENDIX  413 

The  Citizens'  Committee  on  Unemployment  shall,  as  heretofore,  submit 
an  annual  written  report  to  the  Common  Council  and  to  the  Board  of  Super- 
visors, giving  an  account  of  all  expenditures  and  of  the  work  of  the  Free  Em- 
ployment Ofifice. 


CHAPTER  X 
Indoor  Education 

I .   Organization  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  School  System 
I.    College  for  Teachers.     (Organized  1905.) 
II.   High  Schools.     (Organized  1847.) 

A.  Academic  Courses : 

(a)  General  Course.     (Established  1847.) 

(b)  Classical  Course.     (Established  1847.) 

(c)  Manual  Training  Course.     (Established  1906.) 

(d)  Domestic  Science  Course.     (Established  1906.) 

B.  Technical  Courses : 

(e)  Commercial  Course.     (Established  1910.) 

(J)    Boys'  Cooperative  Course.     (Established  1910.) 
(g)  Girls'  Cooperative  Course.     (Established  19 10.) 
(h)  Art  Course.     (Established  1910.) 
(i)   Music  Course.     (Established  1910.) 
III.     Elementary  Schools : 

1.  Regular  Elementary  Schools.     (Organized  1828.) 

2.  Special  Elementary  Schools  : 

(a)  Oral  School  for  the  Deaf.     (Organized  1888.) 

(b)  School  for  the  Blind.     (Organized  1905.) 

(c)  Schools  for  Foreigners.     (Organized  1906.) 

(d)  Boys'  Special  School.     (Organized  1907.) 

(e)  Schools  for  Mental  Defectives.     (Organized  1907.) 
(/)  Schools  for  Retarded  Pupils.     (Organized  1908.) 

Ig)  Continuation  School  for  Apprentices.     (Organized  1909.) 

(A)  Schools  for  E.xceptionally  Bright  Pupils.     (Organized  1910.) 

(i)  Elementary  Industrial  Schools.     (Organized  191 1.) 

(j)  Compulsory  Continuation  Schools.     (Organized  191 1.) 

(k)  Open  air  Schools.     (Organized  191 2.) 

(/)  School  for  Stammerers.     (Organized  191 2.) 

3.  Special  Departments : 

(a)  German.     (Organized  1840.) 

(b)  Penmanship.     (Organized  1841.) 

(c)  Music.     (Organized  1844.) 

(d)  Physical  Training.     (Organized  i860.) 

(e)  Drawing.     (Organized  1864.) 

(/)   Manual  Training.     (Organized  1905.) 
(g)  Domestic  Science.     (Organized  1905.) 
IV.   Kindergartens.     (Organized  1905.) 


414  APPENDIX 

V.    Evening  Schools.     (Organized  1840.) 

1.  Evening  Elementary  Schools.     (Organized  1840,  for  boys;  organ- 

ized 1855,  for  girls;  discontinued  1883  ;   reorganized  1892.) 

2.  Evening  High  Schools : 

(a)  Academic.     (Organized  1856;  discontinued  1883;  reorganized 

1904.) 

(b)  Commercial.     (Organized  1907.) 

3.  Evening  Schools  for  Foreigners.     (Organized  1905.) 

4.  Evening  Industrial  Schools.     (Organized  1906.) 

5.  Evening  Gymnastic  Classes.     (Organized  191 2.) 

6.  Evening  School  for  Stammerers.     (Organized  191 2.) 
VI.   Summer  Schools : 

1.  Vacation  Schools.     (Organized  1906.) 

2.  Summer  Academic  —  Elementary  and  High.     (Organized  1908.) 

3.  Playgrounds.     (Organized  1909.) 

4.  Gardening.     (Organized  191 2.) 
VII.   Social  Centers.     (Organized  1913.) 

2.  The  Eugene  Field  school  has  for  some  time  been  working  to  vitalize 
its  civics  course.  Mr.  Kent,  the  principal,  has  drawn  up  the  following 
plan  of  study. 

Suggestive  Topic  Order  on  Chicago 

1.  The  Glacial  Period. 

2.  The  Three  Stages  of  "Lake  Chicago." 

3.  That  which  underlies  Chicago. 

4.  The  French  and  English  in  the  Chicago  Region. 

5.  The  Northwest  Territory. 

6.  The  Indians  and  the  Chicago  Region. 

7.  Fort  Dearborn,  The  Massacre,  War  of  181 2,  etc. 

8.  Illinois  as  a  Territory  and  State,  —  capitals,  etc. 

9.  Chicago  in  Historical  Steps,  —  Annexations,  etc. 

10.  The  Illinois-Michigan  Canal. 

11.  The  "Fight  for  Life  in  Chicago." 

12.  The  Sanitary  District  and  Canal. 

13.  The  Chief  Lines  of  Industry,  — 

(a)  Steel  and  Iron. 

(b)  Manufacture  of  Agricultural  Machinery. 

(c)  The  Packing  Industry. 

(d)  Elevator,  Milling,  etc.     (The  Empty  Boat.) 

(e)  Electrical  Goods.     (Hydro-electric  Power.) 

14.  The  Great  Chicago  Fire. 

15.  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition. 

16.  Parks  and  Playgrounds. 

17.  Homes  and  Housing. 

18.  The  Chicago  City  Government. 

19.  The  Courts  and  their  WorL 


APPENDIX  415 

20.  Cook  County,  —  naming,  size,  area,  relation  to  Chicago,  etc. 

21.  The  Plan  of  "Chicago  Beautiful." 

22.  Educational  System  and  Institutions, 
(a)    Illinois  Institutions. 

(6)   Cook  County  Institutions. 

(c)   Chicago  Institutions : 

Museums,  Libraries,  Hospitals,  Private  Schools,  Universi- 
ties, Social  Centers,  Settlements,  Historical  Bodies,  Civic 
Organizations,  Philanthropic  Organizations. 


3.  Athletics  is  compulsory  for  all  pupils  in  Boston's  high  schools. 
The  courses  have  been  carefully  worked  out  by  Dr.  T.  F.  Harring- 
ton, director;  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls.  The  work  will  count  two 
points  each  year  toward  a  diploma.  All  boys  are  required  to  take  military 
drill  throughout  the  four  years.  One  point  is  given  on  it,  50  per  cent  for 
carriage  and  posture.     Athletics  secures  the  other  point. 

"In  the  first  year  in  the  high  school  each  boy  must  qualify  in  a  dash; 
one  form  of  jumping;  putting  shot  (5  pounds) ;  chinning  (pull-ups) ;  swim- 
ming. These  are  divided  as  follows :  50-yard  dash,  8  seconds ;  running  high 
jump,  3  feet;  running  broad  jump,  11  feet  6  inches;  standing  broad  jump, 
5  feet  6  inches;  putting  shot,  25  feet;  chinning,  3  times;  swimming,  10 
strokes  without  stopping. 

"In  the  second  year  each  boy  must  qualify  in  a  dash,  two  forms  of  jump- 
ing, putting  shot  (8  pounds),  chinning,  three  swimming  events.  Each 
year  requires  a  little  more  advanced  work  than  the  work  of  the  year  before. 
Swimming  includes  diving,  20-yard  dash  in  35  seconds  and  a  60-yard  dash 
without  stopping. 

"In  the  third  year  each  boy  must  qualify  in  one  dash  and  one  run,  two 
forms  of  jumping,  putting  shot  (8  pounds) ;  chinning  and  three  swimming 
events,  all  a  little  harder  than  those  of  the  preceding  year. 

"In  the  fourth  year  the  pupil  must  be  able  to  do  a  100-yard  dash  in  14 
seconds;  440-yard  run  (for  boys  16  years  old  or  over)  in  i  minute  and  20 
seconds;  running  high  jump,  4  feet  6  inches;  running  broad  jump,  15  feet; 
standing  broad  jump,  7  feet;  putting  shot  (12  pounds),  26  feet;  chinning  7 
times;  swimming,  220  yards  without  stopping;  carrying  burden  in  water; 
care  of  comrades. 

"Each  girl  is  obliged  to  pursue  one  or  more  forms  of  outdoor  recreation 
selected  from  a  given  list.  This  includes  archery,  golf,  rowing,  skiing,  bi- 
cycling, croquet,  sailing,  tennis,  ball  games,  canoeing,  skating,  cross-country 
walking,  horseback  riding.  In  each  of  the  four  years  regular  gymnasium 
work  must  be  done.  It  counts  one  point,  50  per  cent  for  posture  and  car- 
riage. The  other  50  per  cent  is  given  for  marching,  free  standing  exercises, 
apparatus  work,  dancing,  games  and  plays.  The  second  point  includes  in 
the  first  year  besides  one  outdoor  recreation,  one  dash  event,  one  form  of 
jumping;  second  year,  one  dash  event,  two  forms  of  jumping,  swimming 
10  strokes  without  stopping,  two  outdoor  recreations ;  third  year,  one  dash 
event,  two  forms  of  jumping,  swimming  40  yards  without  stopping,  three 


4l6  APPENDIX 

outdoor  recreations;  fourth  year,  one  dash  event,  two  forms  of  jumping, 
s^vimming  60  yards  without  stopping,  diving  (optional),  carrying  burden  in 
water,  four  outdoor  recreations." 

4-  From  the  Annual  Report  of   the  Birmingham  Public  Schools  for  the 
year  ending  June  jo,  191 3. 

Outline  of  Lectures 

I.   The  Relation  of  Mother  to  Child  from  Conception  until  the  Age  of 

Entering  School : 

(a)  The  Physiology  of  Pregnancy. 

(b)  The  Obligations  of  the  Mother  to  the  Unborn  Child. 

(c)  Prenatal  Influences. 
{d)  The  Laws  of  Heredity. 

(e)  The  Age  at  which  Most  Children  Receive  Sex  Enlightenment  and 
its  Usual  Sources. 

(/)  The  Mother's  Duty  to  Anticipate  with  Suitable  Instructions  these 
Influences. 

{g)  The  First  Lessons  in  Sex  Enlightenment. 
II.   The  Normal  Phenomena  of  Adolescence : 

(a)  Reproduction  Our  Highest  and  Most  Sacred  Function. 

{b)  The  Significance  of  Menstruation  and  Its  Physiology. 

(c)  The  Fallacy  of  the  Current  Belief  that  Continence  is  Harmful. 
Its  Necessity  and  Value. 

(</)  The  Consequences  of  Abuse  and  Unethical  Exercise  of  the  Re- 
productive Functions. 

(e)  The  Social  Diseases  and  the  Widespread  Suffering  Caused  by  Them, 
both  in  the  Guilty  and  in  the  Innocent. 

(/)  The  Material,  as  well  as  Moral,  Value  of  Clean  Thoughts,  Reading 
and  Conversation,  and  the  Beneficial  Influence  of  Physical 
Exercise. 

ig)  The  Parents'  Duty  to  frankly  Teach  these  Facts  to  the  Adoles- 
cent Boy  or  Girl. 

III.  The  Hygiene  of  the  Home  : 

(a)  Cleanliness,  Apparent  and  Real. 

(6)   Food  —  Kind,  Amount,  Preparation. 

(c)   Fresh  Air  —  Its  Value  in  Promoting  Health  and  in  Preventing 

Diseases. 
{d)  Tuberculosis  in  its  Relation  to  the  Home, 
(e)   Typhoid  Fever  in  its  Relation  to  the  Home. 
if)    Scarlet  Fever  and  Other  Infectious  Diseases  in  Their  Relation  to 

the  Home, 
(g)  Notable  Disease  Carriers,  —  the  Mosquito,  the  Bedbug,  the  Fly, 

the  Rat. 

IV.  The  Problem  of  the  Child  : 

(a)  His  Nervous  System  and  Early  Training, 
{b)  The  Value  of  Sleep, 
(c)   His  Exercise. 
{d)  Food. 


APPENDIX 


417 


5.  Public  day  schools  for  mentally  defective  pupils  are  maintained  by 
Cincinnati,  New  York,  Rochester,  Providence,  Baltimore,  Milwaukee,  Cleve- 
land, Chicago,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis  and  other  cities. 


CHAPTER  XI 

Outdoor  Education 

I.  The  cities  that  have  done  most  in  regular  organized  school  and 
home  garden  work  are :  on  the  Pacific  slope,  Los  Angeles,  Fresno,  Oakland 
and  Portland;  in  the  West  and  Middle  West,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis, 
Lincoln,  St.  Louis,  Dubuque,  Chicago,  Grand  Rapids,  Detroit,  Cleveland, 
Dayton,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  South  Bend  and  East  Chicago;  in  the  East 
and  South,  Boston,  Brooklyn,  Springfield,  Providence,  New  Haven,  North 
Adams,  Rochester,  Yonkers,  Buffalo,  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  Pitts- 
burgh, Hampton,  Richmond,  Rock  Hill,  Athens,  Atlanta,  Birmingham, 
Washington  and  Memphis. 

2.  Comparison  of  the  Number  of  Users  of  Various  Recreational  Facilities 
of  the  Twelve  Small  Parks  of  the  Chicago  South  Parks  System  with 
the  Number  of  Users  of  the  Corresponding  Facilities  at  the  Emerson 
School  at  Gary  for  Twelve  Months. 


Chicago  Recreation  Parks 


Emerson 
School 


Outdoor  gymnasium 
Indoor  gymnasium 
Swimming  pools       .     , 
Library  reading  room 


Average 
164,314 

25,750 
60,400 
48,940 


Highest 
278,498 

45,793 
115,542 

85,933 


1,200,000 
330,000 
140,000 
300,000 


CHAPTER  Xn 


Higher  Education 


I.     The  Athenian  Oath  —  Richmond,  Indiana,  Junior  High  School.  — ■ 

"  We  will  never  bring  disgrace  to  this,  our  City,  by  any  act  of  dishonesty 
or  cowardice,  nor  ever  desert  our  suffering  comrades  in  the  ranks. 

"  We  will  fight  for  the  ideals  and  sacred  things  of  the  City,  both  alone  and 
with  many. 

"  We  will  serve  and  obey  the  City's  laws  and  do  our  best  to  incite  a  like 
respect  and  reverence  in  those  above  us  who  are  prone  to  annul  or  set  them 
at  naught. 

"  We  will  strive  unceasingly  to  quicken  the  Public's  sense  of  civic  duty. 
2  E 


41 8  APPENDIX 

"  Thus,  in  all  these  ways,  we  will  transmit  this  city  not  only  not  less,  but 
greater;   better  and  more  beautiful  than  it  was  transmitted  to  us." 

The  Chicago  vacation  schools  are  opened  with  exercises  which  include 
the  singing  of  a  patriotic  hymn,  the  saluting  of  the  American  flag  and  the 
repetition  of  the  Civic  Creed. ^ 

"God  hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,  and  we  are  his  children, 
brothers  and  sisters  all.  We  are  citizens  of  these  United  States,  and  we  be- 
lieve our  Flag  stands  for  self-sacrifice  for  the  good  of  all  the  people.  We 
want,  therefore,  to  be  true  citizens  of  our  great  city,  and  will  show  our  love 
for  her  by  our  works. 

"  Chicago  does  not  ask  us  to  die  for  her  welfare ;  she  asks  us  to  live  for  her, 
and  so  to  live  and  so  to  act  that  her  government  may  be  pure,  her  officers 
honest,  and  every  corner  of  her  territory  shall  be  a  place  fit  to  grow  the  best 
men  and  women  who  shall  rule  over  her." 

2.  "...  Los  Angeles  .  .  .  provides  the  following  vocational  curricu- 
lums:  Commercial  art,  hand- wrought  metal  work,  interior  decorating, 
leather  work,  pottery  work,  general  farmer,  specialty  farmer,  truck  gardener, 
landscape-gardener,  nursery  man,  dairy-farmer,  poultry  man,  farm  me- 
chanic, multigraph  operator,  adding-machine  operator,  filing  clerk,  billing 
clerk,  office  assistant,  office  manager,  accountant,  auditor,  bank  clerk,  book- 
keeper, cashier,  stenographer,  reporter,  private  secretary,  shipping-clerk, 
receiving  clerk,  business  manager,  post-office  employee,  civil  service  em- 
ployee, commercial  teacher,  caterer's  assistant  (cooking  and  supplying 
home-made  articles  for  delicatessen  stores  and  private  families),  teacher 
domestic  science  and  art,  housekeeper,  waitress,  dressmaker,  milliner, 
seamstress,  boat-builder,  engineer  (marine-gasoline),  merchant  marine, 
naval  architect,  aquarian  architect,  cataloguer  of  marine  life,  chart  de- 
signer, curator  of  museums,  fish  commissioner,  fish  expert,  fish  propagator, 
assayer,  blacksmith,  cabinet-maker,  chemist,  architectural  draughtsman, 
mechanical  craftsman,  foundryman,  central  station  electrical  work,  sub- 
station electrical  work,  telephone  work,  electric-light  work,  electrician, 
machine-shop  work,  pattern-making  and  survejdng  —  being  sixty-six  in 
number." 

3.     Wisconsin.     Chapter  420,  Laws  of  igij 

"Whenever  an  industrial,  continuation  or  commercial  school  shall  be  es- 
tablished ...  in  any  town,  village  or  city,  any  minor  in  employment  be- 
tween the  ages  of  sixteen  and  seventeen,  residing  in  such  town,  village  or 
city,  shall  attend  such  school  in  the  daytime  not  less  than  five  hours  per 
week  for  six  months  in  each  year  or  four  hours  per  week  for  eight  months, 
as  may  be  determined  by  the  local  board  of  industrial  education.  Every 
employer  shall  allow  all  such  minor  employees  a  reduction  in  hours  of  work 
of  not  less  than  the  number  of  hours  the  minor  is  by  this  section  required  to 
attend  school.  Whenever  the  working  time  and  the  class  time  coincide, 
such  reduction  in  hours  of  work  shall  be  allowed  at  the  time  when  the  classes 
which  the  minor  is  by  law  required  to  attend  are  held. 

'  Composed  by  Miss  Mary  McDowell  of  Chicago. 


APPENDIX  419 

"...  Whenever  any  day  continuation  classes,  industrial  school  or  com- 
mercial school  shall  be  established  in  any  town,  village  or  city  in  this  state 
for  minors  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen,  working  under  permit 
as  now  provided  by  law,  every  such  child,  residing  within  any  town,  village 
or  city  in  which  any  such  school  is  established,  shall  attend  such  school  in 
the  daytime  not  less  than  five  hours  per  week  for  .  .  .  eight  months  in  each 
year,  until  such  child  becomes  sixteen  years  of  age,  or  four  hours  per  week 
for  .  .  .  ten  months,  as  may  be  determined  by  the  local  board  of  industrial 
education,  and  every  employer  shall  allow  all  minor  employees  over  fourteen 
and  under  sixteen  years  of  age  a  reduction  in  hours  of  work  of  not  less  than 
the  number  of  hours  the  minor  is  by  this  section  required  to  attend  school." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PtTBLic  Libraries  and  Museums 

1.  State  Library  Commissions 

Alabama  Department  of  Archives  and  History, 
Division  of  Educational  Extension. 
Arkansas  State  Library  Commission. 
California  State  Ivibrary. 
Colorado  Board  of  Library  Commissioners. 
Colorado  Traveling  Library  Commission. 
Connecticut  Free  Public  Library  Committee. 
Delaware  Free  Library  Commission. 
Georgia  Library  Commission. 
Idaho  State  library  Commission. 
Illinois  Library  Extension  Commission. 
Indiana  Public  Library  Commission. 
Iowa  Library  Commission. 
Kansas  Traveling  Libraries  Commission. 
Kentucky  Library  Commission. 
Maine  Library  Commission. 
Maryland  State  Library  Commission. 
Massachusetts  Free  Public  Library  Commission. 
Michigan  State  Board  of  Library  Commissioners- 
Minnesota  Public  Library  Commission. 
Missouri  Library  Commission. 
Nebraska  Public  Library  Commission. 
New  Hampshire  Public  Library  Commission. 
New  Jersey  Public  Library  Commission. 
New  York  State  Education  Department, 

Division  of  Educational  Extension. 
North  Carolina  Library  Commission. 
North  Dakota  Public  Library  Commission. 
Ohio  Board  of  Library  Commissioners. 
Oregon  State  Library. 


420  APPENDIX 

Pennsylvania  Free  Library  Commission. 
Rhode  Island  Department  of  Education, 

State  Committee  on  Libraries. 
South  Dakota  Free  Library  Commission. 
Tennessee  Free  Library  Commission. 
Texas  Library  and  Historical  Commission. 
Utah  State  Board  of  Education. 
Vermont  Board  of  Library  Commissioners. 
Virginia  State  Library. 
Washington  State  Library  Commission. 
Wisconsin  Free  Library  Commission. 

2.  In  the  Business  Branch  of  the  Newark  Public  Library  a  large 
amount  of  printed  matter  has  been  brought  together,  consisting  of 
books,  maps  of  railway  routes,  freight  routes,  express  lines,  time  tables, 
steamship  routes  and  lines,  directories  —  not  of  cities  only,  but  of  trades 
and  occupations  of  many  kinds  —  trade  journals,  devoted  to  manufacturing 
in  general,  to  machinerj',  the  problem  of  one  particular  class  of  objects,  to 
advertising  and  salesmanship,  house  organs  devoted  to  the  promotion  of 
individual  firms,  and  journals  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  employees,  reports 
of  scientific  societies,  magazines  relating  to  all  aspects  of  finance,  commerce, 
administration  and  business  efficiency,  city  directories,  telephone  directories, 
Blue  Book  and  social  directories  of  all  large  cities  in  the  world. 

The  technical  room  contains  an  extensive  collection  of  works  on  technical 
subjects.  The  reading  room  of  the  library  is  used  extensively  by  mechanics, 
engineers  and  other  men  of  technical  training  who  find  there  all  the  principal 
technical  journals  and  pamphlets  issued  by  the  engineering  societies.  The 
Business  Branch  Library  answers  more  than  one  thousand  questions  a  day. 

The  Christian  Science  Monitor  records:  "Statistics  from  that  city 
show  that  in  a  year  25,000  people  use  the  1000  city,  state,  trade  and  foreign 
telephone  directories;  7000  use  the  1200  maps  and  25  atlases;  10,000  con- 
sult the  reference  books ;  600  use  the  typewriter ;  3000  telephone  for  and 
receive  information  upon  business  matters.  Of  the  42,000  men  who  use  the 
directories,  maps  and  reference  books,  37,500  help  themselves.  The  3000 
telephone  calls  represent  a  very  important  means  of  service.  These  calls 
increase  in  number  steadily.  They  cover  a  wide  range  of  subject  matter, 
and  require  versatility  in  the  attendants.  '  Please  give  me  the  names  of  some 
box  manufacturers  in  Pennsylvania?'  'What  is  the  membership  fee  in  the 
Institute  of  Civil  Engineers  in  England?'  'Who  is  the  British  Consul 
General  at  Algiers  ? ' " 

3.  The  following  cities  have  Municipal  Reference  Libraries :  Balti- 
more'  (City  Hall),  Brookl>Ti,  Chicago  (City  Hall),  Cinciimati '  (City 
Hall),  Cleveland  (Public  Library),  Fort  Wayne  (Public  Library),  Los  Ange- 
les, Milwaukee  (City Hall), Minneapolis  (Public  Library),  New  York  (Muni- 
cipal Building),  Oakland  (City  Hall),  Philadelphia  (Free  Library  branch), 
Pittsburgh  1  (H.  W.  Oliver  Building),  Portland,  Oregon  (City  Hall),  St. 
Louis  (City  Hall),  San  Francisco  (City  Hall),  Seattle  (PubHc  Library). 

'  Not  under  Public  Library  management. 


APPENDIX  421 

4.  The  development  of  high  school  libraries  first  received  serious 
attention  about  i8go,  at  which  time  there  were  less  than  2500  public  high 
schools  in  this  country  housing  a  library.  In  i9i2,as  a  result  of  a  ques- 
tionnaire sent  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  it  was  shown  that  of  the 
11,224  schools  listed  of  secondary  grade,  10,329  reported  libraries.  There 
are  several  different  types  of  high  school  libraries : 

(i)  The  high  school  library  maintained  by  the  Board  of  Education  strictly 
as  a  piece  of  school  apparatus  for  the  use  of  the  students  and  teachers  alone, 
and  housed  in  a  school  building  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher  or  some- 
times a  trained  librarian.  The  high  school  libraries  of  Spokane,  Detroit,  and 
Washington,  D.  C,  are  excellent  examples  of  this  type. 

(2)  The  public  school  library.  These  are  libraries  of  considerable  size, 
under  School  Board  management,  frequently  housed  in  the  high  school  or  in 
an  annex  of  a  high  school,  and  organized  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  books 
to  all  the  schools  in  the  city.  The  central  library  is  under  the  supervision  of 
a  trained  worker,  branch  libraries  are  established  in  each  of  the  public 
schools,  and  in  many  instances  classroom  libraries  are  provided.  The  high 
school  libraries  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  Albany,  New  York,  are  of  this  type. 

(3)  A  branch  of  the  public  library  located  in  the  high  school  building 
or  merely  a  collection  of  books  lent  to  the  school  by  the  public  library  for  a 
definite  period  of  time.  Books  are  lent  to  meet  the  current  demands  of 
teachers  and  students  and  are  changed  as  often  as  the  demand  necessitates. 
The  school  furnishes  the  room,  heat,  light,  janitorial  service,  and  some 
general  reference  books,  the  public  library  supplying  the  books  for  general 
circulation  or  special  use.  Sometimes  the  public  library  supplies  an  attend- 
ant to  look  after  the  library,  while  in  other  cases  the  school  delegates  a  teacher 
for  that  service.  Cleveland,  Newark  (N.  J.),  Passaic,  Portland  (Ore.),  and 
Buffalo  make  use  of  this  form  of  cooperation  between  the  library  and  the 
schools,  as  do  Elmira,  Utica,  and  Madison  (Wis.)  in  slightly  modified  ways. 

(4)  The  combination  school  and  public  library.  This  is  a  common  ar- 
rangement in  small  towns  that  are  unable  to  support  a  public  library.  The 
high  school  building  is  utilized  for  the  purpose,  under  the  supervision  of  a 
teacher.  One  of  the  largest  of  this  type  of  high  school  libraries  is  located 
at  Troy,  Ohio.  There  is  also  one  at  Canandaigua,  New  York.  (Edward  D. 
Greenman,  Library  Journal,  April,  1913.) 

5.  The  library  sometimes  undertakes  vicarious  work,  as  when  it  en- 
courages children  to  buy  books.  Brooklyn  and  other  cities  publish  a 
list  of  books,  called  The  Children's  Own  Library.  The  Chicago  Public 
Library  Finding  List  of  Young  People's  Books,  June,  191 2,  contains  Chil- 
dren's Bibliographies,  320  pp.,  including  the  following  lists  issued  by  other 
libraries,  individuals  and  publishing  firms  : 

Baker,  F.  T.,  comp.     A  bibliography  of  children's  reading.     (1908.) 
Borden,  W.  A.,  comp.     The  best  modem  novels;  a  classified  list  of  thirty- 
five  hundred  of  the  best  modern  novels  that  are  in  active  use  in  the 
public  libraries  of  the  United  States.     1910. 
Boston.     Public  Library.     List  of  books  for  boys  and  girls  in  the  Public 

Library  of  the  cit>'  of  Boston.     1904. 
Brooklyn   (N.  Y.).     Public  Library.     Books  for  boys  and  girls  approved 
by  the  Brooklyn  Public  Library  for  use  in  its  children's  rooms.     191 1. 


422 


APPENDIX 


Buffalo.     Public  Library.     Classroom  libraries  for  public  schools,  listed  by 

grades ;   to  which  is  added  a  list  of  books  suggested  for  school  reference 

libraries.     1909. 
Children's  catalogue;  a  guide  to  the  best  reading  for  young  people  based  on 

twenty-four  selected  library  lists;    comp.  by  M.  E.  Potter,  assisted  by 

B.  Tannehill  and  E.  L.  Teich.     1909.     Published  by  the  H.  W.  Wilson 

Company,  Minneapolis. 
Hyatt,  B.  E.     Biography  for  young  people.     1899.     (New  York  State  Li- 

brar}'.     Bulletin  68,  November,  1901.     Bibliography  32.) 
Kennedy,  H.  T.,  comp.     Suggestive  list  of  children's  books  for  a  small 

hbrary  recommended  by  the  Wisconsin  Free  Library  Commission.    1910. 
Pittsburgh.     Carnegie  Library.     Annotated  catalogue  of  books  used  in  the 

home  libraries  and  reading  clubs  conducted  by  the  children's  department. 

A  subject  arrangement  with  author  and  title  index.     1905. 

Catalogue  of  books  in  the  children's  department  of  the  Carnegie 

Library  of  Pittsburgh.     1909. 

Gifts  for  children's  book  shelves ;   a  list  for  mothers. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Social  Centers 


I.  The  seventy-one  cities  which  reported  for  1912-1913  some  paid 
workers  in  carrying  on  evening  activities  other  than  those  of  the  regular 
night  school  were  as  follows : 


California 

Iowa 

Maiden 

Los  Angeles 

Burlington 

Natick 

Santa  Rosa 

Des  Moines 

Winchester 

Sioux  City 

Worcester 

Colorado 

Denver 

Kansas 

Michigan 

Pueblo 

Leavenworth 

Detroit 
Grand  Rapids 

Connecticut 

Kentucky 

Kalamazoo 

Stamford 

Louisville 

Pontiac 

Waterbury 

Louisiana 

Minnesota 

Illinois 

New  Orleans 

Minneapolis 

Chicago 

Red  Wing 

Evanston,  Dist.  76 

Maryland 

St.  Paul 

Oak  Park 

Baltimore 

Ottawa 

New  Jersey 

Rockford 

Massachusetts 

Bloomfield 

Boston 

East  Orange 

Indiana 

Cambridge 

Elizabeth 

Crawfordsville 

Chicopee 

Englewood 

Gary 

Dedham 

Jersey  City 

Mishawaka 

Gardner 

Montclair 

APPENDIX 


423 


New  Brunswick 
Passaic 
Paterson 
Trenton 

New  York 
Buffalo 
Geneva 
New  York 
Niagara  Falls 
Rochester 
Saugerties 
Schenectady 
Watertown 


North  Dakota 
Grand  Forks 

Ohio 
Canton 
Cincinnati 
Columbus 
Hamilton 
Youngstown 

Pennsylvania 
Philadelphia 
Pittsburgh 
Reading 


Rhode  Island 
Newport 

West  Virginia 
Wheeling 

Wisconsin 
Kenosha 
Milwaukee 
Oshkosh 
Superior 
West  Allis 


2.  Among  the  cities  reported  by  the  National  Board  of  Censorship  of 
Motion  Pictures  as  using  iilms  in  the  public  schools  are  Bakersville,  Cali- 
fornia; Boston;  Buffalo;  Dermison,  Texas;  Denver;  Fitchburg;  Houston 
Ithaca;   Lincoln;   Maspeth,   Long  Island;    Minneapolis;    New  Rochelle 
New  York ;  Omaha ;  Paducah ;  Pasadena ;  Paterson ;  Providence ;  Pueblo 
St.  Paul;  Troy;   Zanesville,  Ohio.     They  are  in  use  in  the  social  centres  of 
Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Minneapolis,  New  RocheUe,  St.  Louis,  and  South 
Bend. 

3.  The  National  Board  of  Censorship  of  Motion  Pictures  also  reports 
that  Boston,  Cincinnati,  Denver  and  New  Orleans  make  use  of  motion  pic- 
tures in  their  parks  and  playgrounds. 


424 


APPENDIX 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Public  Recreation 

I.  Wid^  Use  of  School  Plant,  New  York  City 

Special  Activities 
Aggregate  Attendance  igi3-igi4 

Recreation  Centres 2,569,303 

Vacation  Playgrounds 6,155,182 


Social  and  Recreation  Centres 


Playgrounds 


Educative 


Study  Room 

Quiet  Games 

Library 

Magazines 

Singing 

Music 

Civil  Service 

Clubs 

Literary 

Debating 

Dramatic 

Social 

Athletic 

Parents 

Boy  Scouts 

Camp  Fire  Girls 


Recreative 


Vacation 
Playgrounds 


Gymnasium 

Athletics 

Basket  Ball 

Civil  Service 

Hand  Ball 

Base  Ball 

Baths 

Social  Dancing 

Folk  Dancing 

Parties 

Tournaments 

Entertainments 

Contests 

Drills 


Assembly 

Swings 

Seesaw 

Sand  Play 

Occupation 

Story  Telling 

Clubs 

Games 

Library 

Raffia 

Athletics 

Gymnastics 

Baths 


Mothers  and 

Babies 
Playgrounds 


Assembly 

Swings 

Ring  Games 

Sand  Play 

Raffia 

Folding 

Cutting 

Sewing 

Games 

Baths 


Evening 

Play- 
grounds 


Band 

Concert 

Dancing 

Games 

Singing 

Baths 


2.  South  Park  Commissioners,  Chicago 

Application  for  Use  of  Halls  and  Club  Rooms 
Conditions 

Your  reservation  is  not  secure  until  you  receive  a  reservation  card.  If 
you  do  not  receive  a  reservation  card  within  a  few  days  after  your  request 
is  filed,  write  or  telephone  the  office  of  the  South  Park  Commissioners. 

The  halls  and  club  rooms  are  for  the  free  use  of  the  public  for  all  moral 
purposes  except  political  and  religious  meetings.  Political  or  religious 
propaganda  work  will  not  be  permitted  in  any  park. 

Groups  and  individuals  using  the  halls  and  club  rooms  must  refrain  from 


APPENDIX  425 

advertising  their  business,  school,  studio,  society,  association,  or  institution 
by  verbal  or  printed  announcements,  or  by  any  other  direct  or  indirect 
method. 

No  group  or  individual  will  be  permitted  to  charge  admission,  charge 
wardrobe  fee,  sell  tickets,  or  solicit  money  in  any  manner  at  any  function 
held  in  any  part  of  the  building  or  park. 

Dignified  and  responsible  chaperones  must  accompany  all  groups  of  boys 
and  girls  under  16  years  of  age. 

Doorkeepers,  wardrobe  attendants,  floor  manager  and  other  necessary 
aids  must  be  supplied  by  each  group  using  the  halls  for  dances. 

Suggestive  or  improper  dancing  will  not  be  tolerated.  The  Field  House 
Director  will  be  the  ultimate  authority  as  to  what  is  improper. 

Smoking,  card  playing  or  gambling  of  any  nature  will  not  be  tolerated 
in  any  part  of  the  park  buildings. 

Violation  of  any  of  the  conditions  stated  above  will  result  in  depriving 
the  group  or  individuals  involved  of  further  use  of  the  Field  House  facilities. 

Club  rooms  may  be  engaged  not  more  than  three  months  in  advance. 

Assembly  halls  may  be  engaged  not  more  than  two  months  in  advance. 

Applicant  Retain  this  Slip 
(See  other  side) 

Applicant  give  this  slip  to  the  Field  House  Director,  or  mail  the  same 
to  the  South  Park  Commissioners,  Fifty-seventh  Street  and  Cottage  Grove 
Avenue. 

Date 

To  the  South  Park  Commissioners : 

I  hereby  make  application  for  the  use  of  the 

Name  of  hall 

in 

Write  name  of  Park 

on 

Give  day,  date,  month  or  months  and  time 

for  the  purpose  of  holding 

Name  kind  of  use 

I  represent 

Give  name  of  group  or  institution.    If  not  an  organized  group  write  "Unor- 
ganized Group." 

The  group  will  consist  of 

Give  exact  number  as  nearly  as  possible  and  state  average  age. 
The  name  of  the  chaperone  or  leader  who  will  be  present  is 

(Name,  Address  and  Phone  Number) 
The  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  reservation  card  should  be  sent  is 

(Name,  Address  and  Phone  Number) 
In  signing  the  above  I  acknowledge  that  I  have  read  the  conditions  of 
reservation  and  that  the  group  for  whom  I  wish  a  reservation  will  observe 
all  conditions  set  forth  herein,  or  any  conditions  imposed  by  the  Field 
House  Director  during  the  use  of  the  building. 

Signed 

Address 


426  APPENDIX 

3.  A  comparison  of  the  patronage  and  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  bath- 
houses of  Milwaukee  and  Brookline  may  throw  some  light  on  the  advisability 
of  maintaining  free  public  baths.  In  1900,  215,000  baths  were  furnished 
at  the  West  Side  Natatorium  in  Milwaukee  at  a  cost  to  the  city  of  $4755, 
or  including  interest  on  the  plant,  $5595 ;  at  the  South  Side  Natatorium 
there  were  212,000  baths  taken,  costing  the  city,  including  interest,  $5270, 
in  each  case  an  expense  of  about  2^  cents  a  bather.  In  the  same  year  it  cost 
the  city  of  Brookline  $7600  to  provide  50,000  baths,  and  there  was  received 
in  fees  the  amount  of  $5233.50,  leaving  a  deficit  of  $2366.50,  thus  making 
a  cost  to  the  city  of  nearly  five  cents  a  bather.  It  would  appear  that  it  costs 
the  city  only  half  as  much  per  bather  in  Milwaukee  to  provide  free  baths, 
as  it  does  in  Brookline  to  provide  baths  for  fees.  It  costs  the  city  of  New 
York  twelve  cents  per  bather  with  the  19 13  patronage  of  its  public  natato- 
riums,  but  when  they  are  used  to  their  maximum  capacity,  it  will  reduce  the 
cost  to  about  that  of  Milwaukee. 

4.  Notable  Cine  Pageants 

The  American  Pageant  Association  lists  the  Pageant  of  Education,  which 
occurred  in  Boston  in  1908,  as  the  first  American  performance  properly  to  be 
regarded  as  a  pageant. 

In  igog — Du.xbury  Days,  An  Historical  Pageant,  Duxbury  (Mass.). 
The  true  spirit  of  pageantry  was  incorporated  in  this  performance,  which  was 
probably  the  first  presentation  of  the  history  of  the  growth  and  development 
of  a  locality  given  outdoors  in  New  England. 

Pageant  of  Illinois,  Evanston  (111.). 

In  igio  —  MacDowell  Memorial  Pageant,  Peterboro  (N.  H.),  combined 
the  historical  incidents  of  Peterboro  with  a  sequence  of  scenes  developed  from 
the  musical  compositions  of  Edward  MacDowell,  in  whose  memory  the  per- 
formance was  given.  It  is  notable  as  the  first  American  pageant  to  treat 
music  seriously  as  a  creative  factor  in  the  making  of  a  pageant. 

Pageant  of  the  Perfect  City,  Boston.  (191 5  Civic  Pageant.)  A  notable 
pageant,  belonging  to  the  group  of  pageants  of  an  idea,  or  social  pageants,  — 
its  principal  purpose  being  to  arouse  civic  interest  in  the  progress  and  future 
development  of  the  community. 

Old  Worcester  Ways,  An  Historical  Pageant,  Worcester  (Mass.). 
Historical  Pageant,  Charlestown  (Mass.). 
The  Ripon  Historical  Pageant,  Ripon  (Wis.). 
Pageant  of  Old  Deerfield,  Deerfield  (Mass.). 
Pageant  of  Ipswich,  Ipswich  (Mass.). 

In  igii  —  Pageant  of  the  History  of  Minnesota,  St.  Paul. 

Historical  Pageant  of  Northampton,  Northampton  (Mass.). 

Pageant  of  New  London,  New  London  (Conn.). 

Pageant  of  the  Old  Northwest,  Milwaukee. 

Pageant  of  Patriotism,  Taunton  (Mass.). 

Pageant  of  Hartford,  Hartford  (Vt.). 

Pageant  of  Martha's  Vineyard,  West  Tisbury  (Mass.). 

Pageant  of  Bennington,  Bennington  (Vt.). 

A  Pageant  for  Independence  Day,  Chicago. 


APPENDIX  427 

In  1912  —  Historical  Pageant,  Philadelphia.  One  of  the  three  largest 
American  pageants.  Over  6000  people  took  part.  The  motive  was  dis- 
tinctly historical,  and  the  dramatization  consequently  literally  historical 
and  realistic,  and  not  symbolically  interpretive.  Peculiarly  of  the  English 
type.  Magnificent  as  a  spectacle  on  its  enormous  but  ideal  grounds  in 
Fairmount  Park.  Unequaled  for  historical  accuracy  in  all  details  of  cos- 
tumes and  properties. 

Erasmus  Hall  High  School,  Brooklyn.  Done  by  the  teachers  and  pupils 
of  the  school  in  the  courtyard  of  the  new  buildings  on  the  occasion  of  their 
completion.  Dealt  with  the  history  of  Brooklyn,  particularly  as  it  centered 
in  this  school. 

In  iQij  —  The  Arlington  Pageant,  Arlington  (Mass.). 
The  Weston  Pageant,  Weston  (Mass.). 
Pageant  of  Meriden,  Meriden  (N.  H.). 
The  Pageant  of  Portland,  Portland  (Me.). 
The  Medway  Pageant,  Medway  (Mass.). 
The  Pageant  of  Wheeling,  Wheeling  (W.  Va.). 
Pageant  of  Oxford,  Oxford  (Mass.). 
Pageant  of  Healdsburg,  Healdsburg  (Cal.). 
Pageant  at  Peoria,  Peoria  (111.). 

In  igi4  —  The  Pageant  of  Concord,  Concord  (N.  H.). 

Pageant  of  New  Harmony,  New  Harmony  (Ind.). 

The  Pageant  of  Littleton,  Littleton  (Mass.). 

Pageant  of  Rutland  (200th  Anniversary),  Rutland  (Mass.). 

The  Chatham  Pageant,  Chatham  (N.  Y.). 

The  Pageant  of  Warren  (R.  I.). 

The  Pageant  of  Elizabeth  (N.  J.). 

The  Pageant  of  St.  Louis. 

A  complete  list  of  American  pageants  may  be  obtained  from  the  American 
Pageant  Association,  President,  Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  Ticknor  House, 
Boston. 

CHAPTER  XVn 

City  Planning 

I.  The  site  of  the  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  is  at  once 
commanding  and  generous.  It  is  divided  by  a  cross  street  into  two  por- 
tions, one  of  which  on  the  higher  level  contains  the  school  building,  which 
from  its  high  position  commands  a  view  of  the  athletic  field,  lying  im- 
mediately between  it  and  Grand  Avenue  Boulevard.  The  field  furnishes 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  running  track,  regular  football  and  baseball  fields,  and 
gives  opportunity  for  the  introduction  of  all  athletic  sports,  including  tennis 
and  basketball.  The  stadium  will  seat  5500  persons  and  provides  locker 
and  toilet  facilities  for  the  general  public,  as  well  as  for  those  taking  part  in 
the  athletic  events. 


428  APPENDIX 

The  building  contains  a  swimming  pool  and  a  music  and  lecture  room 
seating  300  besides  an  auditorium.  The  manual  training  shops  are  located 
in  the  rear  of  the  building  in  a  well-lighted  one-story  annex.  The  school  is 
equipped  with  a  vacuum  cleaning  system,  is  wired  and  fitted  complete  with 
lighting  fixtures,  individual  lighting  being  carried  to  the  pupils'  tables  in  the 
laboratories  and  mechanical  drawing  rooms.  There  is  a  synchronizing  clock 
and  bell  system,  a  house  telephone  system  with  switchboard  in  the  general 
office,  a  refrigerating  plant  to  serve  the  lunch  room,  and  drinking  fountains 
throughout  the  building.  The  building  will  cost,  ready  for  its  fixed  equip- 
ment, $666,000  or  17.7  cents  per  cubic  foot.  The  stadium,  plans  for  which 
are  just  completed,  is  estimated  to  cost  $70,000. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Prepared  by  Helen  Bernice  Sweeney 
CHAPTER   I 

The  Conservation  of  the  City 

Munro,  William  Bennett.     A  Bibliography  of  Municipal  Government  in 

the  United  States.     Harvard  University  Press,  Cambridge.     191 5. 
General  Statistics  of  Cities:    1909.     Department  of  Commerce:    Bureau 

of  the  Census.     Government  Printing  Office,  Washington. 
Financial  Statistics  of  Cities  having  a  Population  of  over  30,000:    1912. 

Department    of    Commerce :     Bureau    of    the    Census.     Government 

Printing  Office,  Washington.     19 14. 
Bartlett,  Dana  W.     The  Better  City.     Neuner,  Los  Angeles.     1907. 
Wilcox,  Delos  F.     The  American  City :   a  Problem  in  Democracy.     Mac- 

mUlan,  New  York.     1904. 
Wilcox,  Delos  F.     Great  Cities  in  America :    Their  Problems  and  Their 

Government.     Macmillan,  New  York.     1910. 
Johnson,    Tom    Loftin.     My    Story.     Edited     by    Elizabeth    J.    Hauser. 

Huebsch,  New  York.     1911. 
Howe,  Frederic  C.     The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy.     Scribner's,  New 

York.    1905. 
Howe,  Frederic  C.    The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems.     Scribner's,  New 

York.     1915. 
Pollock,   Horatio   M.,   and   Morgan,   William   S.     Modern   Cities.     Funk 

and  Wagnalls,  New  York.     1913. 
Taylor,  Graham  Romeyn.     Satellite  Cities.     Appleton,  New  York.      1915. 
Lindsey,    Benjamin   Barr,   and   O'Higgins,   Harvey   Jerrold.     The   Beast. 

Doubleday,  New  York.     1910. 
Hungerford,    Edward.     The   Personality   of   American    Cities.     McBride, 

Nast,  New  York.     1913. 
Beard,  Mary  Ritter.     Women's  Work  in  Municipalities.     Appleton,  New 

York.     1915. 
American  City  Bureau.     Selected  list  of  municipal  and  civic  books.     New 

York,  1913. 
The  list  is  brought  down  to  date  in  each  issue  of  the  American  City. 
American  Year  Book.     1914.     Edited  by  Francis  G.  Wickware.     Appleton, 

New  York.     1915. 
McLaughlin,  A.  C,  and  Hart,  A.  B.,  eds.     Cyclopedia  of  American  Gov- 
ernment.    3  vols.     New  York,  19 14. 
Municipal  Journal.     Municipal  Index,  in  which  are  listed  and  classified 

429 


430  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

all  articles  treating  of  municipal  topics  appearing  in  the  leading  periodi- 
cals.    New    York. 

The  index  is  published  monthly.     It  has  been  issued  since  1907. 
Engineering   Index.     Bibliography   of   municipal   government.     Compiled 
from  the  Engineering  Index. 

Published  monthly  in  the  Engineering  Magazine  since  1906. 

The  National  Municipal  Review. 

The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 
The  American  City. 
A  merican  Economic  Review. 
The  Survey. 

Municipal  Engineering. 
Municipal  Journal. 
Engineering  Magazine. 
The  American  Architect. 
La  Follette's  Magazine. 

The  Christian  Science  Monitor,  daily,  Boston,  has  fuller  and  more  accurate 
civic  news  than  any  other  American  newspaper. 


CHAPTER  II 

The  City  Portal 
(Terminals) 

Richardson,  W.  Symmes.     The  Terminal  —  The  Gate  of  the  City.     Scrih- 

ner's  Mag.,  October,  191 2. 
Dunn,   Samuel   O.     The  Problem  of   the   Modern  Terminal.    Scribner's 

Mag.,  October,  191 2. 
Arnold,  Bion  Joseph.     Report  on  the  Rearrangement  and  Development  of 

the  Steam  Railroad  Terminals  of  the  City  of  Chicago.     Submitted 

to  the  Citizens'  Terminal  Plan  Committee  of  Chicago.     November  18, 

1913- 

Wallace,  John  F.  Report  to  the  Committee  on  Railway  Terminals  of  the 
City  Council  of  Chicago.     October  20,  1913. 

The  Railway  Terminal  Problem  of  Chicago :  A  Series  of  Addresses  before 
the  City  Club  dealing  with  the  Problem  of  Reorganizing  Chicago's 
Railway  Terminals.  Published  by  the  City  Club  of  Chicago.  Sep- 
tember, 1913. 

Fisher,  W.  L.,  and  Arnold,  Bion  J.  Report  to  the  Citizens'  Terminal  Plan 
Committee  of  Chicago.     1914. 

Arnold,  Bion  Joseph.  Report  on  the  Improvement  and  Development  of 
the  Transportation  Facilities  of  San  Francisco.  Submitted  to  the 
Mayor  and  the  Board  of  Supervisors,  City  of  San  Francisco.     March, 

1913- 
Monumental  Gateway  to  a  Great  City :    Completing  the  Grand  Central 

Terminal,  New  York.     Scientific  American,  December  7,  191 2. 
Van  Norman,  L.   E.     Achievement  of  the  Hudson  Tunnels.     Review  oj 

Reviews,  April,  1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  43 1 

{Concrete  Viaducts) 

Noyes,  E.  N.  Construction  of  the  Concrete  Viaduct  between  Dallas  and 
Oak  Cliff,  Texas.     Engineering  Record,  November  9,  191 2. 

The  (Galveston)  Causeway  Bill.     The  Galveston  Daily  News,  May  25,  191 2. 

Mowry,  Duane.  Milwaukee's  Concrete  Viaduct.  Municipal  Journal, 
October  31,  1912. 

Reinforced  Concrete  Arches  in  Pittsburgh.  Municipal  Engineering, 
March,  1913. 

Penn  Street  Viaduct  at  Reading,  Pennsylvania.  Engineering  Record, 
November  30,  191 2. 

Galveston's  New  Link  with  Texas.     Harper's  Weekly,  June  15,  191 2. 

Tyrrell,  Henry  Grattan.  Concrete  Bridges  and  Culverts  for  Both  Rail- 
roads and  Highways.     M.  C.  Clark,  Chicago.     1909. 

(Bridges) 

Tyrrell,  Henry  Grattan.  The  Esthetic  Treatment  of  City  Bridges.  Re- 
printed from  American  City.     No.  loi. 

Tyrrell,  Henry  Grattan.  Artistic  Bridge  Design.  M.  C.  Clark,  Chicago. 
1912. 

The  City's  Giant  Bridges.     Scientific  American,  December  5,  1908. 

Thompson,  T.  Kennard.  The  Bridges  of  New  York  City.  Engineering 
Mag.,  September  and  October,  1909. 

Schuyler,  Montgomery.  Our  Four  Big  Bridges.  Architectural  Record, 
March,  1909. 

Koester,  Frank.     Bridges  and  Bridge  Approaches.     American  City,  May, 

1913- 

(Waterfront) 

Ramage,  B.  J.     The  Reconstruction  of  American  Ports.     Review  of  Reviews, 

April,  1914. 
National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress.     Proceedings.     191 1. 
White,   Frank   G.     Port   Improvements  at   San   Francisco.      Engineering 

Record,  July  12,  1913. 
Dodge,  Louis  A.     The  Public  Belt  Railroad  of  New  Orleans.     American 

City,  December,  191 1. 
Covering  a  City's  Front  with  Docks,  Tracks  and  Parks.     Scientific  American, 

May  6,  191 1. 

(Harbor  Improvements) 

Ramage,  B.  J.     The  Reconstruction  of  American  Ports.     Review  of  Reviews, 

April,  1914. 
Chicago  River   and    Harbor  Association.     River    Bulletin    No.    i.    May, 

1909. 
Seattle   and    Puget    Sound    Harbor   Improvements.     Scientific   American, 

October  19,  191 2. 
Port  of  Seattle  Commission.     Reports.     191 2  to  date. 


432  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Koester,  Frank.  Modem  City  Planning  and  Maintenance.  McBride, 
Nast  and  Co.,  New  York.     1914. 

Baltimore :  Port  and  Terminal  Advantages.  Municipal  Journal  (Balti- 
more), April  9,  1915. 

River  Traffic  Terminals  for  Davenport,  Iowa.  The  Christian  Science 
Monitor,  December  31,  19 14. 

Atlantic  Deeper  Waterways  Association.     Bulletins. 

Farbar,  Jerome  H.  The  Houston  Chamber  of  Commerce  ("Houston  Ship 
Channel").     National  Municipal  Review,  January,  1913. 

Great  Gains  in  a  Year  for  Boston.  Bulletin  of  the  Atlantic  Deeper  Water- 
ways Association,  January,  1914. 

Sikes,  G.  C.  Survey  of  American  Dock  Development.  Third  National 
Conference  on  City  Planning.     Proceedings.     191 1. 

Department  of  Docks  and  Ferries.     Reports.     New  York,  1910-1912. 

{Track  Elevation) 

New  York  State.  Public  Service  Commission.  First  District.  Review 
of  grade  crossing  elimination,  digest  and  bibliography.  Report  to 
Commissioner,  Edward  M.  Bassett,  by  Robert  H.  Whitten,  librarian- 
statistician.     New  York,  1910. 

St.  Louis.  Public  Library.  Grade  Crossing  Elimination  in  American 
Cities.  Bibliography  and  digest  of  reports  from  cities.  Monthly 
Bulletin,  news  series,  July,  19 13. 

Grade  Separation  at  Grand  Crossing,  Chicago.  Railway  Age  Gazette, 
May  3,  1912. 

Lachey,  W.  S.  The  Track  Elevation  Subways  in  Chicago.  Railway  Age 
Gazette,  March  6,  1914. 

Elimination  of  Crossings  Long  Chicago  Task.  The  Christian  Science  Moni- 
tor, November  30,  1914. 

Department  of  Track  Elevation,  Chicago.  In  Mayor  Harrison's  Report. 
May  18,  1914. 

Abolishment  of  Grade  Crossings.  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Surveys 
of  the  City  of  Philadelphia  for  the  year  19 13. 

Wagner,  Samuel  Tobias.  The  Elevation  of  the  Tracks  of  the  Philadelphia, 
Germantown  and  Norristown  Railroad,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engmeers.     Transactions.     Paper  No.  1275.     (1913-) 


CHAPTER  III 

Municipal  Railway  Regulation 
{GeneraTj 

Houston,  E.  J.,  and  Kennelly,   A.   E.     Electric  Street  Railways,     New 

York,  1906. 
Johnson,    E.    R.     Public   Regulation  of   Street   Railway  Transportation, 

The  Annals,  March,  1907. 
Electric  Railway  Transportation.     The  Annals,  January,  1911, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  433 

A  Study  of  Rapid  Transit  in  Seven  Cities.     Municipal  Reference  Library, 

Chicago.     Mun.  Ref.  Bulletin  No.  3.     July,  1914. 
Wilco.x,  Uelos  Franklin.     Street  Railway  Re-Settlements  and  Negotiations 

for  Municipal  Ownership.     National  Municipal  Review,  October,  1914. 

(Jiineys) 

The  Jitney  in  Many  Cities.     Municipal  Journal,  February  18,  1915. 
State  Legislation  and  the  Jitney.     Municipal  Journal,  May  20,  1915. 
King,  Clyde  Lyndon.     The  Jitney  Bus.     American  City,  June,  191 5. 

{Volume  of  Urban  Transportation) 

Street  and  Electric  Railways,  1907.  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Special  Report. 
1910. 

Census  Statistics  of  the  Street  Railway  Industry.  Scientific  American 
Supplement,  May  8,  1909. 

Snyder,  George  Duncan.  City  Passenger  Transportation  in  the  United 
States.     Scientific  American  Supplement,  March  29,  191 3. 

Central  Electric  Light  and  Power  Stations  and  Street  and  Electric  Rail- 
ways, 191 2.     Bureau  of  the  Census,  Bulletin  124.     1914. 

Ten  Years  of  the  New  York  Subway.  Municipal  Journal,  November  19, 
1914. 

{Rapid  Transit:  Boston) 

Beal,    B.    L.     Boston    Municipal    Subway.     Municipal   Affairs,    March, 

1900. 
Winslow,    Willard.     Boston's    New    Subway.     Municipal    Affairs,    June, 

1901. 
Brandeis,  Louis  D.     The  Experience  of  Massachusetts  in  Street  Railways. 

Municipal  Affairs,  Winter,  1902-1903. 
Municipal  Ownership  and  Municipal  Franchises.     The  Annals,  January, 

1906. 
Pinanski,   Abraham  E.     Boston's  Street  RaUways.     National  Municipal 

Review,   April,    191 2. 
Boston  Transit  Commission.     Reports. 
Boston  Elevated  Railway  Company.     Reports. 

{Rapid  Transit:  New  York) 

Tunnels  and  Subways.     Scientific  American,  December  5,  1908. 

Martin,  John.  Rapid  Transit :  Its  Effect  on  Rents  and  Living  Conditions 
and  How  to  Get  It.  Published  and  sold  by  the  Committee  on  Con- 
gestion of  Population,  New  York.     March,  1909. 

A  Great  Rapid  Transit  System  for  a  Great  City :  Doubling  the  Capacity  of 
New  York's  Subways  and  Elevated  Roads.  Scientific  American, 
December  17,  1910. 

New  York  State.  Public  Service  Commission,  first  district.  Dual  System 
of  Rapid  Transit  for  New  York  City.     September,  191 2. 

2F 


434  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lavis,  F.  New  York  Rapid  Transit  Railway  Extensions.  A  series  of 
articles.  History  of  rapid  transit  development  in  New  York,  especially 
evolution  of  systems  now  under  construction.  Engineering  News,  Octo- 
ber 1-15,  1914- 

Wilco.x,  Delos  Franklin.  The  New  York  Subway  Contracts.  National 
Municipal  Review,  July,  1913. 

Gilbert,  G.  H.,  Wightman,  L.  I.,  and  Saunders,  W.  L.  The  Subways  and 
Tunnels  of  New  York;  Methods  and  Costs;  with  an  Appendix  on 
tunneling  machinery  and  methods,  and  tables  of  engineering  data. 
New  York,  191 2. 

{Chicago's  Freight  Tunnels) 

Chicago's  Sixty  Miles  of  Freight  Subway.  Scientific  American,  December 
II,  1909. 

{Chicago's  Street  Railway) 

Hotchkiss,  Willard  E.  Chicago  Traction:  A  Study  in  Political  Evolu- 
tion.    The  Annals,  November,  1906. 

Hotchkiss,  Willard  E.  Recent  Phases  of  Chicago's  Transportation  Prob- 
lem.    The  Annals,  May,  1908. 

Chicago.  Joint  Report  on  Comprehensive  System  of  Passenger  Subways 
for  the  City  of  Chicago  by  the  Harbor  and  Subway  Commission  and 
Sub-committee  of  the  Council  Committee  on  Local  Transportation. 
September  10,  191 2. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  How  the  Chicago  and  Cleveland  Street  Railway 
Settlements  are  Working  Out.  National  Municipal  Review,  October, 
1912. 

Chicago.  Street  Railways :  Proceedings  before  Committee  on  Local 
Transportation  in  Re-investigation  of  Board  of  Supervising  Engineers. 
June,  1 9 14. 

Hooker,  George  E.  Through  Routes  for  Chicago's  Steam  Railroads. 
Published  by  the  City  Club  of  Chicago.     1914. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  Great  Cities  in  America.  Macmillan,  New  York. 
1910. 

Heilman,  R.  E.  Chicago  Traction;  a  study  of  the  efforts  of  the  public 
to  secure  good  service.  American  Economic  Association  Quarterly, 
July,  1908. 

{Rapid  Transit:  Philadelphia) 

McLain,  F.  D.     The  Street  Railways  of  Philadelphia.     Quarterly  Journal  of 

Economics,  February,  1908. 
Lewis,   Edwin  O.     Philadelphia's  Relation  to  Rapid  Transit  Company. 

The  Annals,  May,  1908. 
Report  of  the  Transit  Commissioner,  City  of  Philadelphia.     2  vols.     July, 

1913- 
Rapid  Transit   Development   with   Universal   Free  Transfers.     Reply  of 
the  Department  of  City  Transit  to  Proposals  of  March  25,  1914,  by 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  435 

the  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Company.  Philadelphia,  April  7, 
1914. 

Financial  Aspects  of  the  Program  for  Rapid  Transit  Development  with 
Universal  Free  Transfers.  Submitted  for  Consideration.  State- 
ment made  by  Director  of  the  Department  of  City  Transit,  Philadel- 
phia.    June  2,  1914. 

Taylor,  A.  Merritt.  Philadelphia's  Transit  Problem.  The  Annals,  Janu- 
ary, 1915. 

{Street  Railways:  Detroit) 

Bemis,  Edward  W.  Detroit's  Efforts  to  Own  Her  Street  Railways.  Mu- 
nicipal Affairs,  September,  1899. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  The  Control  of  Public  Service  Corporations  in 
Detroit.     The  Annals,  May,  1908. 

Detroit's  Railroads  may  become  Municipal.  Municipal  Record  (San  Fran- 
cisco), March  25,  1915. 

{Street  Railways:  Cleveland) 

Bemis,  Edward  W.  The  Franchise  Situation  in  Cleveland.  Municipal 
Affairs,  June,  1902. 

Hayden,  Warren  S.  The  Street  Railway  Situation  in  Cleveland.  Con- 
ference for  Good  City  Government.     Proceedings.     Cincinnati,  1909. 

Bemis,  Edward  W.  Cleveland  Street  Railway  Settlement.  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Economics,  May,  1910. 

Sidlo,  T.  L.  Cleveland  Invalidity  Clause  :  A  New  Development  in  Public- 
Utilities  Ordinances.     Journal  of  Political  Economy,  February,   191 1. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  How  the  Chicago  and  Cleveland  Street  Railway 
Settlements  are  Working  Out.  National  Municipal  Review,  October, 
1912. 

Johnson,  Tom  Loftin.  My  Story.  Edited  by  Elizabeth  J.  Hauser. 
Huebsch,  New  York.     1911. 

Three  Years  of  Cleveland  Street  Railway  Plan.  American  City,  Sep- 
tember, 1913. 

{Street  Railways:  San  Francisco) 

Arnold,  Bion  Joseph.  Report  on  the  Improvement  and  Development  of 
the  Transportation  Facilities  of  San  Francisco.  Submitted  to  the 
Mayor  and  the  Board  of  Supervisors,  City  of  San  Francisco.     March, 

1913- 

Harrison,  Walter  M.  San  Francisco's  Municipal  Street  Railway. 
American  City,  February,  1913. 

San  Francisco  Municipal  Railway :  Official  Statement  of  the  Cost  of  Con- 
struction and  the  Operation.     Electric  Railway  Journal,  October  11, 

1913- 
San  Francisco's  First  Tunnel  Successfully  Completed  and  in  Use.     Munic- 
ipal Record  (San  Francisco),  Dec^rqber  31,  1914- 


436  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Report  of  the  Municipal  Railways  of  San  Francisco  for  the  year  ending 

December  31,  19 14. 
Technical   Description  of  Twin  Peaks  Tunnel.     Municipal  Record   (San 

Francisco),  January  14,  1915. 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  City  Street 
(General) 

Maxwell,  W.  H.,  and  Brown,  J.  T.     The  Encyclopaedia  of  Municipal  and 

Sanitary  Engineering.     New  York,  19 10. 
Whinery,   S.     Municipal   Public   Works :    Their  Inception,   Construction 

and  Management.     Macmillan,  New  York.     1903. 
Baker,  M.  N.     Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation.     Macmillan,  1902. 

(Paving) 

Municipal  Paving:  A  Symposium.     The  Annals,  May,  1907. 

General  Statistics  of  Cities  :  1909.  Department  of  Commerce :  Bureau  of 
the  Census.     Special  Report. 

Tillson,  George  William.  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials.  2d  ed. 
Wiley,  New  York.     191 2. 

Tillson,  George  William.  Street  Pavements  —  Their  Selection,  Care  and 
Maintenance.     American  City,  December,   191 2. 

Lewis,  Nelson  P.  Need  of  a  Systematic  Paving  Program.  American  City, 
July,  1913. 

Gaynor,  K.  C.     Concrete  Paving.     American  Municipalities,  April,  1913. 

The  Street  Paving  Problem  of  Chicago :  A  Report  to  the  Street  Paving 
Committee  of  the  Commercial  Club  by  John  W.  Alvord.     1904. 

Galligan,  W.  J.  Municipal  Street  Repairing  in  Chicago.  Municipal 
Journal,  August  6,  1914. 

New  York  City.  Report  of  the  Mayor's  Committee  on  Pavements.  Ap- 
pointed in  October,  191 1,  to  investigate  and  report  on  the  present 
condition  of  the  pavements  of  the  city  and  how  they  can  best  be  im- 
proved.    March,  191 2. 

Blachly,  Frederick  F.  The  Streets  of  New  York  City.  National  Municipal 
Review,  October,  1913. 

Street  Paving  Statistics :  Official  figures  from  about  700  cities ;  amount  of 
paving  done  in  1913 ;  amount  contemplated  for  1914;  etc.  Municipal 
Journal,  March  5,  19 14. 

Dutton,  Ellis  R.  Creosoted  Wood  Block  Pavement  Laid  by  City  Day 
i^abor  m  Minneapolis.     Engineering  News,  January  2,  1913. 

Hubbard,   Prevost.     Dust   Preventives  and   Road   Binders.     New  York, 

1910. 
Frost,  Harwood.     The  Art  of  Roadmaking,  Treating  of  the  Various  Prob- 
lems and  Operations  in  the  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Roads, 
Streets,  and  Pavements.     New  York,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  437 

(Pavement  Openings) 

Barlow,  James  E.  Openings  in  Street  Pavements.  American  Cily,  Janu- 
ary, 1913. 

Boiling,  C.  E.  Installing  Underground  Pipe  Connections  before  Paving 
Roads.     American  Cily,  February,  191 2. 

Webster,  George  S.  Subterranean  Street  Planning.  The  Annals,  Janu- 
ary, 1914. 

(Conduits) 

Ford,  Frederick  L.  The  Removal  of  Overhead  Wires.  American  Civic 
Association.     Leaflet  No.  13.     March,  1907. 

Myers,  Gustavus.  History  of  Public  Franchises  in  New  York  City  :  Con- 
duits and  Subways.     Municipal  Affairs,  March,  1900. 

Department  of  Commerce  :  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Special  Report.  Gen- 
eral Statistics  of  Cities  :    1909. 

Department  of  Commerce  :  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Special  Report.  Finan- 
cial Statistics  of  Cities  :    191 1. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  District  of  Columbia.     Vol.  II. 

1913- 
Department  of  Gas  and  Electricity  of  the  City  of  Chicago.     Annual  Report. 

1913- 
Baltimore's  Municipal  Conduit  System.     Municipal  Journal  (Baltimore), 

March  19,  1915. 
Dumond,  Lewis  A.     Pipe  Subways  for  the  Public  Utilities  of  Chicago. 

Abstract  of  a  report.     Engineering  Record,  December  26,  1914. 

(Municipal  Lighting) 

Department  of  Commerce :  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Special  Report.  Cen- 
tral Electric  Light  and  Power  Stations  and  Street  and  Electric  Rail- 
ways: 191 2. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Gas,  Oil  and  Electric  Light  to  the  City  Council 
of  Chicago.     January  29,  1906. 

Rowe,  L.  S.  The  Municipality  and  the  Gas  Supply,  as  Illustrated  by  the 
Experience  of  Philadelphia.     The  Annals,  May,  1898. 

Grant,  Arthur  Hastings,  comp.  A  List  of  Defunct  Municipal  Lighting 
Plants.     2d  and  enl.  ed.     M.  O.  Publishing  Bureau,  New  York.     1908. 

Ford,  A.  H.  Street  Lighting.  Bulletin  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa. 
No.  I. 

Palmer,  Ray.  Street  Lighting  Rates  and  Cost  Factors.  American  City, 
December,  1914. 

Palmer,  Ray.     Municipal  Lighting  Rates.     The  Annals,  January,  1915. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Electrical  Bureau  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia  for  the 
year  ending  December  31,  1913.     A  Summary. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  Public  Works  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Light- 
ing for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1912.     Philadelphia,  1913. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Lighting  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia  for  the 
year  ending  December  31,  1913. 


438  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Water  and  Light  Department  of  the  City  of  Duluth. 
Hopwood,    E.    C.     The    Baker    Administration    of    Cleveland.     National 

Municipal  Review,  July,  1913. 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Gas  and  Electricity,  City  of  Chicago. 
Winchester,  .\lbert  E.     South  Norwalk's  Municipal  Electric  Works.     The 

Annals,  January,  1915. 
Koiner,   C.   Wellington.     Pasadena's  Municipal   Light  and  Power  Plant. 

The  Annals,  January,  1915. 
Cleveland's  New  Municipal  Electric  Plant :   Selling  Electricity  at  a  Three- 
Cent  Maximum  Rate.     Engineering  News,  July  30,  1914. 
Hatch,    William    B.     A    Successful    Fight   for   a    Municipal    Gas   Plant. 

American  City,  January,  19 15. 
Municipal  Journal.     Lighting  Number.     August  27,  1914. 
Municipal  Lighting  Department  Reports  of  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Holyoke, 

Jacksonville  (Fla.),  Los  Angeles,  Pasadena,  Richmond  (Va.),  Seattle, 

South  Norwalk  and  Tacoma. 

{Ornamental  Lighting) 

Kaempffert,  Waldemar.     Ornamental  Street  Lighting.     National  Electric 

Light  Association.     191 2. 
Allen,  Walter  C.     A  Notable  Development  in  Ornamental  Street  Lighting. 

American  City  Pamphlet  No.  109. 
Bright,    Alan.     Ornamental    Street   Lighting   with    Gas.     American   City, 

March,  1913. 
Koiner,  C.  W.     Street  Lighting  in  Pasadena.     American  City,  January, 

1913- 
Lacombe,  C.  F.     Street  Lighting  Systems  and  Fixtures  in  New  York  City. 

American  City,  May,  191 3. 
Paying  for  Display  Lighting.     Municipal  Record  (San  Francisco),  January 
7,  1915- 

CHAPTER  V 

The  City's  Wastes 
{Street  Cleaning) 

Soper,  George  Albert.  Modern  Methods  of  Street  Cleaning.  Engineering 
News,  New  York.     1909. 

General  Statistics  of  Cities :  1909.  Department  of  Commerce :  Bureau  of 
the  Census.     Special  Report. 

Very,  E.  D.  Modem  Methods  of  Street  Cleaning.  American  City,  Novem- 
ber, 1912. 

Aronovici,  Carol.  Municipal  Street  Cleaning  and  Its  Problems.  National 
Municipal  Review,  April,  191 2. 

Paxton,  J.  W.  Washington  (D.  C.)  Street  Cleaning  Methods.  A  series 
of  articles.     Engineering  News,  August-October,  19 14. 

Street  Cleaning  Data.     Municipal  Journal,  January  14,  1915. 

Finegan,  Thomas.     The  Comparative  Cost  of  Sweeping  Pavem^Tits  by 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  439 

Horse-Drawn    Sweepers   and    by   Motor   Sweepers.     American   City, 

February,  1915. 
Care  of  Streets  in  Chicago.     Engineering  Record,  November  15,  1913. 
New  York  City.     Public  Library.     List  of  Works  Relating  to  City  Wastes 

and  Street  Hygiene.     Bulletin,  October,  19 12. 

(Waste  Collection) 

General  Statistics  of  Cities  :  1909.  Department  of  Commerce  :  Bureau  of 
the  Census.     Special  Report. 

Practical  Aspects  of  the  City  Waste  Problem  :  Norton,  George  H.,  Recover- 
able Values  of  Municipal  Waste;  Whinery,  S.,  Street  Litter  and  Street 
Sweepings ;  Morse,  W.  F.,  The  Collection  of  Municipal  Waste.  Ameri- 
can City,  October,  1913. 

Municipal  Collection  of  Ashes.     Municipal  Journal,  June  11,  1914. 

Morse,  William  F.  The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Municipal  Waste. 
Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  New  York.     1908. 

(Waste  Disposal) 

Soper,  George  A.     A  City  Plan  for  Waste  Disposal.     The  Annals,  January, 

1914- 
General  Statistics  of  Cities :   1909.     Department  of  Commerce :  Bureau  of 

the  Census.     Special  Report. 
Hering,  Rudolph.     Disposal  of  City  Refuse.     Transactions  of  the  Fifteenth 

International    Congress   on  Hygiene    and  Demography,  Washington, 

191 2.     Government  Printing  Office,  Washington.      1913. 
Schneider,  Franz,  Jr.     The  Disposal  of  a  City's  Waste.     Scientific  American, 

July  13,  1912. 
Changing  Garbage  Disposal  from  an  Expense  to  a  Revenue.     American 

City,  September,  19 13. 
Parsons,  H.  deB.     The  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse.     New  York,  1906. 
Utilizing  Incinerator  Heat.     Municipal  Journal,  June  11,  1914. 
Chicago's  Struggle  for  Scientific  Garbage  Collection  and  Disposal.     The 

Survey,  March  21,  1914. 
Report  of  the  City  Waste  Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago.     Chicago, 

1914. 
Department  of  Public  Service :   Garbage  Disposal  Division,  City  of  Cleve- 
land.    Annual  Reports. 
The  March  of  the  Cities:    Seattle  Making  a  Profit  from  the  Disposal  of 

Garbage.     The  World's  Work,  August,  1914. 
Recent   Refuse    Disposal    Practice.      Municipal    Journal,   December    10, 

1914. 
The  Disposal  of  Waste  in  Philadelphia.     National  Municipal  Review,  April, 

1914.     Not€s  and  Events. 
Greeley,  Samuel  A.     Refuse  Disposal  in  Small  Cities  and  Towns.     American 

City  Pamphlet  No.  103. 
Morse,  William  F.     The  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Municipal  Waste. 

Municipal  Jourr.al  and  Engineer,  New  York.     1908. 


440  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Results  of  Garbage  Reduction  at  Columbus,  Ohio.     Municipal  Engineering, 

October,  1913. 
Venable,  W.  M.     Garbage  Crematories  in  America.     New  York,  1906. 

(Snow  Removal) 

Fetherston,  John  T.     Clearing  Streets  of  a  Snowbound  City.     Engineering 

Record,  March  28,  1914. 
Steele,  George  D.     Snow  Removal  in  Our  Leading  Cities.     Better  Roads 

and  Streets,  fiebruary,  191 5. 
Rourke,  L.  K.     Methods  of  Handling  Snow  in    Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  13,  1914. 

(Smoke) 

The  Smoke  Nuisance.  Report  of  the  Smoke  Abatement  Committee  of  the 
Civic  League  of  St.  Louis.     November,  1906. 

Atkinson,  A.  S.  Smokeless  Cities  of  the  Future.  The  Technical  World 
Mag.,  June,  1907. 

The  Smoke  Nuisance.  American  Civic  Association.  2d  ed.  Washington, 
191 1.     (Bibliography.) 

United  States.  Bureau  of  Mines.  Bulletin  No.  39.  The  Smoke  Problem 
at  Boiler  Plants,  a  preliminary  report  by  D.  T.  Randall.  Reprint 
of  United  States  Geological  Survey  Bulletin  334,  revised  by  S.  B.  Flagg. 
Washington,  191 2. 

United  States.  Bureau  of  Mines.  Bulletin  No.  40.  The  Smokeless 
Combustion  of  Coal  in  Boiler  Furnaces,  by  D.  T.  Randall  and  H.  W. 
Weeks.  Reprint  of  United  States  Geological  Survey  Bulletin  373, 
revised  by  Harry  Kreisinger.     Washington,  191 2. 

Flagg,  Samuel  B.  City  Smoke  Ordinances  and  Smoke  Abatement,  United 
States.     Bureau  of  Mines.     Bulletin  49.     1912. 

University  of  Pittsburgh:  Department  of  Industrial  Research.  Outline 
of  the  Smoke  Investigation.     Bulletin  No.  i.     August,  191 2. 

University  of  Pittsburgh:  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and 
School  of  Specific  Industries.  Bibliography  of  Smoke  and  Smoke 
Prevention,  by  EUwood  H.  McClelland,  comp.     Bulletin  No.  2.     1913. 

University  of  Pittsburgh:  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and 
School  of  Specific  Industries.  Psychological  Aspects  of  the  Problem 
of  Atmospheric  Smoke  Pollution,  by  J.  E.  Wallace  Wallin.  Bulletin 
No.  3.     1913. 

University  of  Pittsburgh:  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and 
School  of  Specific  Industries.  The  Economic  Cost  of  the  Smoke 
Nuisance  to  Pittsburgh,  by  John  J.  O'Connor.     Bulletin  No.  4.     19 13. 

University  of  Pittsburgh:  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and 
School  of  Specific  Industries.  The  Meteorological  Aspect  of  the  Smoke 
Problem,  by  Herbert  H.  Kimball.     Bulletin  No.  5.     1913. 

University  of  Pittsburgh:  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and 
School  of  Specific  Industries.  Papers  on  the  Effect  of  Smoke  on  Build- 
ing Materials,  by  Raymond  C.  Benner.     Bulletin  No.  6.     1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  44 1 

University  of  Pittsburgh:    Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research  and 

Specific  Industries.     The  Effect  of  the  Soot  in  Smoke  on  Vegetation, 

by  J.  F.  Clevenger.     Bulletin  No.  7.     1913. 
University  of  Pittsburgh:    Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial   Research  and 

Specific  Industries.     Some  Engineering  Phases  of  Pittsburgh's  Smoke 

Problem.     Bulletin  No.  8.     1914- 
University  of  Pittsburgh :   Mellon  Institute    of    Industrial    Research    and 

Specific  Industries.     Papers  on   the  Influence  of  Smoke  on  Health, 

by  Oskar  Klotz  and  William  Charles  White.     Bulletin  No.  9.     1914- 
Department   of   Smoke   Inspection,    City   of   Chicago.      Bulletin    No.     i, 

February,    1908.     Contains    the    "Ordinance    Providing    for    Smoke 

Inspection  and  Abatement  in  the  City  of  Chicago." 
Department  of  Smoke  Inspection,  City  of  Chicago.     Report.     February, 

1911. 
Cleveland,  Ohio.     Chamber  of  Commerce.     Report  of  the  Committee  on 

Smoke  Prevention.     March  11,  1914. 
Pittsburgh,    Pennsylvania.     An   ordinance   regulating   the  production    or 

emission  of  smoke  .  .  .  within    the    corporate  limits  of  the  City  of 

Pittsburgh.      (Bill  1329.) 
Zellner,  Karl  J.     The  Smoke  Nuisance.     National  Municipal  Review,  Janu- 
ary, 1915. 
Olmsted,   Frederick  L.,   and   Kelsey,   Harlan  P.     The  Smoke  Nuisance. 

American  Civic  Association.     Series  11,  No.  i.     March,  1908. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Water  and  Sewerage 

(The  Conservation  of  Water) 

Fuertes,  J.  H.  Waste  of  Water  in  New  York  and  Its  Reduction  by  Meters 
and  Inspection.     New  York,  1906. 

Hansen,  Paul.  Increasing  the  Efficiency  of  Small  Water  Works  and  Sewage 
Treatment  Plants.  19 13.  Reprinted  from  the  annual  proceedings 
of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Engineers  and  Surveyors. 

Fuller,  George  W.  The  Efficient  Utilization  of  Water  Storage  Reservoirs. 
American  City  Pamphlet  No.  107. 

Water  Consumption  of  Cities.  The  Effect  of  Meters  on  Water  Consump- 
tion.    American  City  Pamphlet  No.  98. 

Dunlap,  John  H.  Water  Works  Statistics  of  Thirty-eight  Cities  of  Iowa, 
with  the  Meter  Rates  of  Seventy  Cities.  Bulletin  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity of  Iowa.     1914. 

Water  Works  Statistics.  Figures  furnished  by  the  superintendents  of  500 
water  works  plants,  both  municipal  and  private  —  consumption, 
meters,  distribution  system,  purification  methods.  Municipal  Journal, 
May  7,  1914. 

Water  Works  Statistics.  Figures  furnished  by  the  superintendents  of  78 
additional  plants  since  May  7.     Municipal  Journal,  June  25,  1914. 


442  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  Seattle  Municipal  Water  Plant;    historical,  descriptive,  statistical. 

Written  by  John  Lamb,  chief  clerk,  and  auditor,  January  i,  1914. 
Turneaure,   F.   E.,  and  Russell,  H.   L.     Public  Water  Supplies.     2d  ed. 

New  York,  1913. 
Hazen,  .\llen.     Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It.     2d  ed.     Rev.  and  enl. 

Wiley,  New  York.     1914- 
Baker,  M.  N.,  ed.     Manual  of   American  Waterworks.     4th  issue.     New 

York,  1897. 

(Los  Angeles  Water  Supply) 

Heinly,  Burt  A.     Los  Angeles  —  A  City  in  Business.     National  Municipal 

Review,  January,  1914. 
Brennecke,  Olga.     How  Los  Angeles  Built  the  Greatest  Aqueduct  in  the 

World.     Craftsman,  November,  1912. 

{New  York  City  Water  Supply) 

White,  Lazarus.  The  Catskill  Water  Supply  of  New  York  City.  New 
York,  1913. 

Weems,  Carrington.  Task  Greater  than  Panama  Canal.  The  Evening 
Post  (New  York),  January  17,  19 14. 

Taylor,  William  T.  Greater  New  York's  Water  Supply  Scheme.  Sur- 
veyor, May  IS,  1914. 

{Boston  Water  Supply) 

Metropolitan  Water  and  Sewerage  Board.    Annual  Reports. 

(Filtration) 

The  Purification  of  Municipal  Water  Supplies.  An  address  delivered  by 
the  Chemist  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  before  the  Lake 
Michigan  Water  Commission,  Milwaukee,  September  10,  1908. 

Water  Filtration  at  Pittsburgh.  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  Novem- 
ber II,  1908. 

Cincinnati's  Water  Filtration  Plant.  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer, 
November  4,  1908. 

Water  Filters  of  Providence,  R.  I.  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  July  2 1 , 
1909. 

Harrisburg's  Filtration  Plant.  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  March 
25,  1908. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  Great  Cities  in  America.  Macmillan,  New  York. 
1910.  Contains  descriptions  of  Washington's  and  Philadelphia's 
filtration. 

Baltimore's  Filtration  Plant.     Municipal  Journal  (Baltimore),  March  5, 

1915- 
Municipal  Water  Purification  Plants ;   partial  list  of,  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada.     Municipal  Journal,  July  23,  1914. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  443 

{Chicago  Sewerage) 

Randolph,  Isham.  The  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  and  the  Chicago 
Drainage  Canal :    A  Review  of  20  Years  of  Engineering  Work.     1909. 

Sewage  Dis[)osal  of  the  Calumet  District.  Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer, 
George  M.  Wisner.     June  g,  1909. 

The  Future  Sanitary  Problem  of  Chicago :  A  Symposium.  Discussion  by 
E.  H.  Lee  and  others.  Journal  of  the  Western  Society  of  Engineers, 
October,  1914. 

The  Water  Power  Development  of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago.  The 
report  of  the  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal  and  Water  Power  De- 
velopment. Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Sanitary 
District  of  Chicago.     November  12,  1914. 

(Sewerage) 

Waring,  George  E.,  Jr.  Modern  Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal  for  Towns, 
Public  Institutions  and  Isolated  Houses.  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co., 
New  York.     1896. 

Kinnicutt,  L.  P.,  Winslow,  C.-E.  A.,  and  Pratt,  R.  W.  Sewage  Disposal. 
New  York,  191 1. 

Fuller,  George  W.     Sewage  Disposal.     McGraw-Hill,  New  York.     191 2. 

General  Statistics  of  Cities  :  1909.  Department  of  Commerce  :  Bureau  of 
the  Census.     Special  Report. 

Hering,  Rudolph.  How  to  Attack  the  Sewage  and  Garbage  Problems. 
American  City  Pamphlet  No.  100. 

Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States.  Location  and  brief  description 
of  more  than  six  hundred  plants  for  treating  sewage,  sewage  disposal 
and  stream  pollution  in  several  states,  and  by  state  health  boards. 
Municipal  Journal,  June  18,  1914. 

Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States.  Additional  list.  Municipal  Journal, 
August  20,  19 14. 

Daniels,  Francis  E.  Operation  of  Sewage  Disposal  Plants.  Municipal 
Journal,  August  20,  19 14. 

Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal  for  Texas  Cities.  University  of  Texas : 
Bureau  of  Municipal  Research  and  Reference.  Bulletin  No.  362. 
October  i,  1914. 

Webster,  George  S.  The  Handling  of  Sewage  Sludge.  A  paper  presented 
at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers, New  York.     December,  19 14. 

Septic  Tanks  at  Birmingham.  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  December 
5.  1906. 

Sewage  Disposal  Plant  of  Reading,  Pennsylvania.  Municipal  Journal 
and  Engineer,  November  6,  1907. 

Sewage  Disposal  at  Worcester.  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  Jan- 
uary 22,  1908. 

(New  York  Sewerage) 

Preliminary  Reports  on  the  Disposal  of  New  York's  Sewage.  Metropolitan 
Sewerage  Commission.     New  York  City. 


444  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Main  Drainage  and  Sewage  Disposal  Works.  Final  Report  of  the  Metro- 
politan Sewerage  Commission  of  New  York.     April  30,  1914. 

Supplementary  Report  on  the  Disposal  of  New  York's  Sewage.  Critical 
report  of  the  New  York  Sewer  Plan  Commission  on  the  plans  of  main 
drainage  and  sewage  disposal  proposed  for  New  York  by  the  Metro- 
politan Sewerage  Commission  and  reply  thereto.     June  30,  19 14. 

(Boston  Sewerage) 

Metropolitan  Water  and  Sewerage  Board.     Annual  Reports. 

(Baltimore  Sewerage) 

Building  a  Highway  on  a  Sewer.     Scientific  American,  August  16,  1913. 
Baltimore's  Sewerage  System.     Municipal  Journal  (Baltimore),  Septem- 
ber 25,  1914;  February  19,  1915. 

(Pasadena's  Sewer  Farm) 

Pearson,  S.  F.     Pasadena  Sewer  Farm.     Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer, 

May  2,  1906. 
Pasadena's  City  Farm  Successful.     National  Municipal  Review,  January, 

19 1 3.     Notes  and  Events. 

(Comfort  Stations) 

Ford,  Frederick  L.  Public  Comfort  Stations.  American  Civic  Associa- 
tion.    Leaflet  No.  14.     March,  1907. 

Bradford,  Ernest  S.  Public  Convenience  Stations  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  November  13,  1907. 

Armstrong,  Donald  B.,  M.D.  Public  Comfort  Stations:  Their  Economy 
and  Sanitation.     American  City  Pamphlet  No.  117. 

(Laundries) 

Free  Public  Bath  Commission  of  Baltimore.     Reports. 

Armstrong,  Donald  B.,  M.D.     Public  Laundries  in  America.    American 

City  Pamphlet  No.  102a. 
Federal  Bureau  of  Labor.     Bulletin  No.  54.     1904. 
Piatt,  Philip  S.     A  Model  Wet-Wash  Laundry.     American  City  Pamphlet 

No.  122. 
Public  Wash-tubs  for  Public  Health.     The  Literary  Digest,  April  4,  1914. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Public  Health 
(General) 

Chapin,  Charles  Value.     Municipal  Sanitation  in  the  United  States.     Snow 
and  Famham,  Providence,     iqoi. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  445 

Baker,  M.  N.     Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation.     Macmillan,  New 

York.     1902. 
Allen,  William  H.     Civics  and  Health.     Ginn,  Boston,     igog. 
Godfrey,  HoUis.     Health  of  the  City.     Houghton,  Boston.     19 10. 
The  Public  Health  Movement.     The  Annals,  March,  191 1.     Twenty-four 

articles  by  authorities,  arranged  under  the  following  general   topics : 

The   General   Problem ;    Disease   Carriers  —  the   Control  of   Causes ; 

Elimination  of  Diseases  —  Physical  Care  of  Individuals. 
Blair,  T.  S.     Public  Hygiene.     2  vols.     Boston,  191 1. 
American  Public  Health  Association.     Annual  Reports  and  Papers. 
Fifteenth  International  Congress  on  Hygiene  and  Demography.     Transac- 
tions.    Washington,     191 2.     6     vols.     Government    Printing    Office, 

Washington.     19 13. 
Gorgas  and  Johnson.     Public  Sanitation  and  the  Single  Tax.     Joseph  Pels 

Fund.     Cincinnati.     1915. 
Merriman,  Mansfield.     Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering.     3d  ed.     New 

York.     1906. 
Sedgwick,  W.  T.     Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  and  the  Public  Health, 

with  special  reference  to  the  causation  and  prevention  of  infectious 

diseases.     New  York.     1908. 
Hutchinson,  Woods.     Instinct  and  Health.     New  York.     1908. 

{Vital  Statistics) 

Johnson,  George  A.  Typhoid  Fever  in  Large  American  Cities.  Engineering 
News,  September  4,  1913. 

Mortality  Statistics :  191 2.  Department  of  Commerce:  Bureau  of  the 
Census.     Special  Report. 

Fifteenth  International  Congress  on  Hygiene  and  Demography.  Transac- 
tions. We.shington,  191 2.  6  vols.  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington.     1913. 

Trask,  J.  W.  Vital  Statistics.  A  discussion  of  what  they  are  and  their 
use  in  public  health  administration.     2d  ed.     Washington,  1914. 

(Housing) 

De  Forest,  Robert  W.,  and  Veiller,  Lawrence,  eds.  The  Tenement  House 
Problem.     Macmillan,  New  York.     1903. 

Aronovici,  Carol.  Constructive  Housing  Reform.  National  Municipal 
Review,  April,  191 3. 

National  Housing  Association,  New  York.     Reports  and  Publications. 

Housing  Problems  in  America.  National  Housing  Association,  New  York. 
2  vols. 

Ihlder,  John.  Reports  on  Housing.  In  National  Municipal  Review: 
Department  of  Reports  and  Reviews. 

Veiller,  Lawrence.  Housing  Reform.  Russell  Sage  Foundation  Publica- 
tion.    Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York.     1910. 

Veiller,  Lawrence.  A  Model  Tenement  House  Law.  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion Publication.     Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York,     igia 


446  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Veiller,    Lawrence.     A   Model   Housing   Law.     Russell   Sage   Foundation 

Publication.     Survey  Associates,  Inc.,  New  York.     1914. 
Fitzpatrick,  F.  W.     Model  Building  Code :    A  Compilation  of  Building 

Regulations   covering   every   phase   of   municipal   building   activities, 

with  special  emphasis  on  fire  preventive  features.     American  School 

of  Correspondence,  Chicago.     19 13. 
Riis,  Jacob  A.     The  Battle  with  the  Slum.     MacmUlan,  New  York.     1902. 
Ford,  James.     Some  Fundamentals  of  Housing  Reform.     American  City 

Pamphlet  No.  99. 
Housing  and  Town  Planning.     The  Annals,  January,  19 14. 
de  Forest,   Robert  W.     A  Brief  History  of  the  Housing  Movement  in 

.\merica.     The  Annals,  January,  1914. 
Veiller,  Lawrence.     Housing  Reform    through  Legislation.      The  Annals, 

January,  1914. 
Breckinridge,    Sophonisba    P.,    and    Abbott,    Edith,    eds.     The    Housing 

Problem  in  Chicago.     Chicago,  1910-1912. 
New  York  City  Tenement  House  Department.     First  Report.     1902-1903, 

2  vols. 
Housing  Reform  in  New  York  City.     Report  of  the  Tenement  House 

Committee  of  the  Charity  Organization  Society  of  the  City  of  New 

York.     1911,  1912,  1913. 
Ihlder,  John.     New  York's  New  Housing  Code  for  Cities  of  the   Second 

Class.     The  Survey,  February  7,  1914. 
Giving  Effect  to  Philadelphia   Housing   Laws.     The  Survey,    January    16, 

1915- 
An   Investigation   of   Housing    Conditions   of    Cleveland's    Workingmen. 

Department  of  Public  Welfare  of  the  City  of  Cleveland.     No.  i.     April, 

1914. 
Murphy,   John  J.     Some  Effects  of  Housing  Regulation.     The  Annals, 

January,  19 14. 

(Markets) 

Mowry,  Don  E.     Municipal  Markets :  An  Economic  Necessity.     Reprinted 

from  Government  Magazine. 
Sinclair,  John  F.,  and  Hallam,  Clark.     Report    upon  Co-operation   and 

Marketing.     Part  III.     Municipal  Markets.     Wisconsin  State  Board 

of  Public  Affairs.     Madison,  191 2. 
Williamson,  C.  C.     Selected  references  on  markets  and  marketing.     (In 

Special  Libraries,  March,  1913.) 
New  York  City.    Mayor's  Market  Commission.    Report.    December,  1913. 

New  York,  1914. 
Miller,  Cyrus  C.     Municipal  Market  Policy.     American  City  Pamphlet. 

1912. 
Sullivan,  James  William.     Markets  for  the  People :  The  Consumers'  Part. 

Macmillan,  New  York.     1913. 
Preliminary  Report  to  the  Mayor  and  Aldermen  of  the  City  of  Chicago  by 

the   Chicago  Municipal   Markets   Commission.     Chicago,   April   27, 

1914. 


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King,    Clyde   Lyndon.     Lower   Living   Costs   in   Cities.     Appleton,    New 

York.     1915. 
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King,  Clyde  Lyndon.     Municipal  Markets.     The  Annals,  November,  1913. 
Thrift,  James  F.,  and  Childs,  William  T.     Some  Typical  American  Markets  : 

II.  Baltimore's  Markets.     The  Annals,  November,  1913. 
Carter,  J.  F.     Public  Markets  and  Marketing  Methods.     American  City, 

February,  1913. 
Kamp,    Charles.     Some    Typical    American    Markets :     III.     Municipal 

Markets  in  Cleveland.     The  Annals,  November,  19 13. 
A  Public  Refrigerator.     The  Literary  Digest,  September  19,  1914. 
Burk,  Annis.      Some  Typical  American   Markets :    IV.  The  Indianapolis 

Market.     The  Annals,  November,  1913. 
Tiefenthaler,  Leo.     Some  Typical  American  Markets:   V.  The  Milwaukee 

Municipal  Market.     The  Annals,  November,  1913. 
Lippincott,  Achsah.     Some   Typical   American   Markets :    VI.  Municipal 

Markets  in  Philadelphia.     The  Annals,  November,  19 13. 
Merrill,  E.  W.     Some  Typical  American  Markets :    VII.    The  Rochester 

Public  Market.     The  Annals,  November,  1913. 

{Rochester  Milk  Supply) 

Goler,  George  W.,  M.D.  "But  a  Thousand  A  Year."  The  Cost  and  the 
Results  in  Rochester  of  Feeding  Clean  Milk  as  Food  for  the  Hand-Fed 
Baby.     Reprinted  from  CAarz7j«,  August  5,  1905.     2d  ed.     April,  1907. 

Goler,  George  W.,  M.D.  Clean  Milk.  Reprinted  from  Archives  of 
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Bureau  of  Health  of  the  City  of  Rochester,  New  York.  Report  for  Sep- 
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{Infant  Welfare) 

Fifteenth  International  Congress  on  Hygiene  and  Demography.  Transac- 
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Washington.     1913. 

National  Congress  of  Mothers,  Washington,  D.  C.  Proceedings.  1897 
to  date. 

American  Association  for  Study  and  Prevention  of  Infant  Mortality.  Pro- 
ceedings. 1910,  191 1  and  191 2.  Johns  Hopkins  University  Press, 
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Rosenau,  Milton  Joseph.     Milk  Question.     Houghton,  Boston.     191 2. 

Magruder,  G.  S.  Solution  of  the  Milk  Problem.  Beresford,  Washington. 
1913- 

Alvord,  H.  E.,  and  Pearson,  R.  A.  The  Milk  Supply  of  Two  Hundred 
Cities  and  Towns.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  :  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry.     Bulletin  No.  46.     Washington.     1903. 

New  York  Milk  Committee  —  Committee  for  the  reduction  of  infant  mor- 
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448  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Spargo,  John.  The  Common  Sense  of  the  Milk  Question.  New  York. 
1908. 

Larson,  J.  H.  New  York's  Balance  Sheet  of  Infant  Life  Saving. 
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Birth  Registration.  United  States  Department  of  Labor:  Children's 
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Baby-Saving  Campaigns :  A  Preliminary  Report  on  what  American  Cities 
are  doing  to  prevent  Infant  Mortality.  United  States  Department  of 
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Jacobi,  Abraham.  Best  Means  of  Combating  Infant  Mortality.  New  York 
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Babbitt,  E.  C.  Work  for  Expectant  Mothers  in  Certain  American  Cities. 
Woman's  Medical  Journal,  January,  19 13. 

Neff,  Joseph  S.,  M.D.  Efficiency  in  Child  Saving.  The  Annals,  May, 
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{School  Medical  Inspection)     {School  Nurses) 

Fourth  International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.  Proceedings.  Buf- 
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School  Hygiene :  A  Short  Reading  List  to  celebrate  the  Fourth  International 
Congress  on  School  Hygiene,  August  25-30,  1913. 

Cornell,  Walter  S.,  M.D.  Health  and  Medical  Inspection  of  School  Chil- 
dren.    F.  A.  Davis  Co.,  Philadelphia.     191 2. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  Bascom.    School  Hygiene.    Macmillan,  New  York.    1913. 

Burks,  Frances  Williston,  and  Jesse  D.  Health  and  the  School.  Appleton, 
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Gulick,  Luther  Halsey,  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Medical  Inspection  of 
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Newmayer,  S.  W.  Medical  and  Sanitary  Inspection  of  Schools.  Lea  and 
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Rapeer,  Louis  W.  School  Health  Administration.  Teachers  College, 
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Hoag,  Ernest  Bryant,  M.D.  Organized  Health  Work  in  Schools.  With 
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Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.  School  Hygiene:  A  Report  of  the  Fourth  Inter- 
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Washington,  1913. 

Brown,  Edward  T.  World  Gathering  of  School  Hygienists.  The  Survey, 
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Hoag,  Ernest  Bryant,  M.D.,  and  Terman,  Lewis  M.     Health  Work  in  the 

Schools.     Houghton,  Boston,     igu- 
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Sage  Foundation  :   Division  of  Education.     No.  loi. 
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Education.     Bulletin  No.  4.     Washington,  1915. 

{Dental  Clinics) 

Taking  Care  of  School  Children's  Teeth.     The  Survey,  October  24,  1914. 
Belcher,   William  W.     The  Dental  Dispensary  at  No.    14  School.     The 

Common  Good  of  Civic  and  Social  Rochester,  October,  1910. 
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Reprinted  from  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  February  6, 

1913. 

{Municipal  Hospitals) 

Holmes,  Christian  R.,  M.D.  Hospitals  and  Their  Relation  to  Medical 
Colleges  and  the  Training  of  Interns.  A  paper  read  at  the  Tenth 
Annual  Conference  of  the  Council  on  Medical  Education,  Chicago. 
February  24,  19 14. 

A  City  that  Doctors  Itself.     The  Outlook,  August  29,  1914.     Editorial. 

Hospital  Social  Service  Association  of  Cincinnati.  Annual  Report.  1913- 
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{Tuberculosis) 

Journal  of  the  Outdoor  Life.  Official  organ  of  the  National  Association  for 
the  Study  and  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis,  105  East  2  2d  Street,  New 
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Preventing  Tuberculosis  in  New  York  City.  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  the  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis  of  the  Charity  Organizarion  Society 
of  the  City  of  New  York  for  191  i-i 9 12-19 13. 

Dispensary  Control  of  Tuberculosis:  Children's  Clinics.  Fifth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Association  of  Tuberculosis  Clinics  of  the  City  of  New 
York.     191 2. 

Billings,  John  S.,  Jr.  The  Tuberculosis  Clinics  and  Day  Camps  of  the 
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City  of  New  York.     Monograph  series  No.  2. 

Sachs,  Theodore  B.,  M.D.  Chicago  Plan  for  Municipal  Control  of  Tuber- 
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Auxiliary  Agencies.     Journal  of  the  Outdoor  Life,  February,  1915. 


450  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Nurses'  Papers  on  Tuberculosis.  Dispensary  Department.  Bulletin  No. 
I.  Published  by  Municipal  Tuberculosis  Sanitarium,  105  West  Monroe 
Street,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Bishop,  R.  H.,  Jr.,  M.D.  The  Fight  against  Tuberculosis  in  Cleveland, 
Journal  of  the  Outdoor  Life,  February,  1915. 

Consumptives'  Hospital  Department  of  the  City  of  Boston.  Annual 
Reports.     1906  to  date. 

Department  of  Charities  and  Correction  of  the  City  of  Cincinnati.  Re- 
port for  the  year  19 13.  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Tuberculosis  Sani- 
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Batzell,  Paul  E.  Letting  the  Sun  Cure  Tuberculosis  in  Children.  The 
Survey,  October  31,  1914. 

Davis,  N.  S.  Consumption :  how  to  prevent  it  and  how  to  live  with  it. 
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Knopf,  S.  A.  Tuberculosis  as  a  Disease  of  the  Masses,  and  How  to  Combat 
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Otis,  E.  O.  Tuberculosis :  Its  cause,  cure  and  prevention.  A  revised  edi- 
tion of  "The  Great  White  Plague."     New  York,  1914. 

(Infectious  Diseases) 

New  Contagious  Disease  Hospital,  Chicago.  Annual  Message  of  Mayor 
Carter  H.  Harrison,  May  18,  1914. 

Hospital  for  Infectious  Diseases  (Rochester,  New  York).  Report  of  the 
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New  York  City.  Department  of  Health.  Handbook  of  information  regard- 
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(Flies) 

Hewitt,  C.  G.     House-flies  and  How  They  Spread  Disease.     New  York, 

1912. 
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April,  191 2. 
Flies :  The  Fly  Campaign.     Department  of  Public  Safety  of  the  City  of 

Rochester,  New  York.     Annual  Report  for  the  Year  1913. 
An  Official  Fly  Catcher.     The  World's  Work,  March,  1915. 
Cleveland's  Little  "Fly-Cops."     The  Literary  Digest,  March  6,  1915. 
The  First  Flyless  City.     The  Independent,  May  3,  1915. 

(Mosquitoes) 

A  City  Bat-Roost.     The  Literary  Digest,  April  17,  1915. 

Essex  County  Mosquito  Extermination  Commission,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 

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City,  March,  1914. 


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Mosquito  Campaign.     Bureau  of  Highways  and    Street  Cleaning  of  the 
City  of  Philadelphia.     Annual  Report  for  the  Year  19 13. 

{Rats) 

Department  of  Public  Health  and  Charities.     City  of  Philadelphia.     Plague 
Prevention  Message  No.  i. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Protection 
(Fire) 

Aquatic  Fire  Fighters.     The  Outlook,  July  18,  1914.     Editorial. 

Babcock,    Ross.     Modern    Motor    Fire    Apparatus.     Scientific    American, 

March  28,  1914. 
Transforming  the  Trade  of  the  Fire  Fighter.     Collier's,  June  7,  1913. 
Booth,  George  W.     Automobile  Fire  Apparatus.     A  Report  submitted  as 

Chairman  of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  Committee  on 

Automobile  Fire  Apparatus.     May,  1913. 
Heydecker,  Wayne  D.     The  Two-Platoon  System  in  the  Fire  Department. 

American  City,  April,  1914. 
Fuertes,  James.     Abstract  of  report  on  water  pressure  in  its  relation  to 

automatic  sprinklers  for  fire  prevention.     Bulletin  of  the  Merchants' 

Association  of  New  York,  July  20,  1914. 
United  States  Geological  Survey.     Bulletin  No.  418.     The  Fire  Tax  and 

Waste  of  Structural  Materials  in  the  United  States,  by  Herbert  M. 

Wilson  and  John  L.  Cochrane.     Government  Printing  Office,  Wash- 
ington.     1910. 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  New  York.     Report  of  the  Committee 

on  Statistics  and  Origin  of  Fires.     May  28,  1914. 
Bureau  of  Fire  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia.     Annual  Report  for  the  year 

1913- 

United  States.  Library  of  Congress.  Division  of  Bibliography.  Selected 
list  of  references  on  fire  protection.  Washington,  1913.  Printed 
also  in  Special  Libraries,  February,  1913. 

Croker,  Edward  Franklin.     Fire  Prevention.     Dodd,  New  York.  ^   1912. 

Bennett,  Walter  H.  Fire  Prevention  from  a  Legislative  Viewpoint.  Ad- 
dress before  the  ninth  annual  convention  of  the  Fire  Marshals'  Asso- 
ciation of  North  America  at  Asheville,  North  Carolina.  September  11, 
1914. 

Evans,  Powell.     Fire  Waste.     The  Annals,  January,  1914- 

Evans,  Powell.  A  Five- Years'  Fight  against  Fire  Waste  in  the  United 
States,   1908-1912,  inclusive.     Philadelphia,   191 2. 

Wohlgemuth,  E.  Jay.  The  First  Municipal  Fire  Prevention  Club  in  the 
United  States.     American  City,  Ma.rch.,  i()i 2,- 

Board  of  Fire  Commissioners,  Newark,  New  Jersey.  Twenty-eighth 
Annual  Report  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1913. 


452 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Johnson,  Joseph.  Recent  Progress  in  Fire  Prevention  and  Fire  Fighting 
in  New  York  City.     American  City,  September,  1913. 

Newark  Fire  Department.     Municipal  Journal,  April  9,  19 14. 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Fire 
Prevention  of  the  City  of  Chicago,  Illinois,  being  supplement  to  Report 
No.  208.     July  17,  1914- 

Fire  Prevention.  Danger  zone ;  building  codes ;  private  and  public  extin- 
guishing appliances ;  control  of  occupancy  hazard ;  state  and  municipal 
laws.     Contract  Record,  October  28,  1914. 

Ray,  Martin  H.  Fighting  Fires  Before  They  are  Lit.  American  City 
Pamphlet  No.  105. 

(Police) 

Fuld,  Leonhard  Felix.  Police  Administration :  A  Critical  Study  of  Police 
Organizations  in  the  United  States  and  Abroad.  Putnam's,  New  York. 
1909. 

Fuld,  Leonhard  Felix.  The  Organization  of  Police  Forces.  National  Mu- 
nicipal League.     Proceedings.     1910. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  Great  Cities  in  America.  Macmillan,  New  York. 
1910. 

McCaffrey,  George  H.  The  PoHce  and  the  Administration  of  Justice. 
The  Annals,  March,   1914- 

Bostwick,  Andrew  Linn,  comp.  Municipal  Police  Departments.  Tables 
showing  the  size  of  the  police  departments  of  thirteen  of  the  largest 
cities  of  the  United  States  in  relation  to  population,  area  and  street 
mileage.  Municipal  Reference  Library,  St.  Louis  Public  Library, 
January  i,  1915. 

McAdoo,  William.     Guarding  a  Great  City.     New  York,  1906. 

Whitlock,  Brand.     Forty  Years  of  It.     Appleton,  New  York.     1914. 

Howe,  Frederic  C.  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems.  Scribner's,  New 
York.     1915. 

(Police  Matrons  and  Policewomen) 

Fuld,    Leonhard    Felix.     Police    Administration.     Putnam's,    New    York. 

1909- 
Women  Police  Increased.     Municipal  Journal,  January  29,  1914.     In  Fire 

and  Police. 

Wells,  A.  S.     Women  on  the  Police  Force.     American  City,  April,  1913. 

Wells,  Alice  Stebbins.  Police  Women.  The  Survey,  July  25,  1914.  Com- 
munications. 

A  "City  Mother."  National  Municipal  Review,  January,  1915.  Notes 
and  Events. 

Pohcewomen  in  Chicago,  The  Literary  Digest,  August  28,  1913. 

{Traffic  Police) 

Eno,  William  Phelps.  Street  Traffic  Regulation.  Rider  and  Driver  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  New  York.     1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  453 

Rules  and  Regulations  Governing  Street  Traffic  in  Philadelphia.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  September  30,  19 14. 

Eno,  William  Phelps,  Standardized  Street  Traffic  Regulation.  Ameri- 
can City,  September,  1913. 

(Safety  Commission) 

Hofifman,  Peter  M.     Biennial  Report  of  the  Coroner   of  Cook  County, 

Illinois.     1912-1913. 
Will  Flash  Red  Light  Signals  to  Protect  the  Charles  River  Basin  Resorts. 

The  Sunday  Herald,  Boston,  February  21,  1915. 

(Regulation  of  Alcohol) 

Edwards,  R.  H.,  ed.     The  Liquor  Problem.     Madison,  1908. 

Warner,  H.  S.     Social  Welfare  and  the  Liquor  Problem:    Studies  in  the 

sources  of  the  problem  and  how  they  relate  to  its  solution.     Rev.  ed. 

Chicago,  19 1 3. 
Committee  of  Fifty.     Series  of  Investigations.     6  vols.     Boston,    1898- 

1905- 

("  The  Social  Evil") 

The  American  Social  Hygiene  Association,  New  York.     Publications. 

The  Minnesota  Red  Light  Injunction  and  Abatement  Law.  Introduced 
in  the  Legislature  through  the  efforts  of  the  Woman's  Club  of  Minne- 
apolis and  enacted  into  Law  April  26,  19 13. 

The  Social  Evil  in  Chicago :  A  Study  of  Existing  Conditions  with  Recom- 
mendations by  the  Vice  Commission  of  Chicago.  Gunthrop-Warren 
Printing  Co.,  Chicago.     191 1. 

The  Social  Evil  (Portland,  Oregon).  National  Municipal  Review,  January, 
1913.     Reports  and  Documents. 

Chicago  Morals  Commission  Appointed.     The  Survey,  February  6,  1915. 

Morals  Efficiency  Commission.  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania.  Report  and 
recommendations  of  the  commission.     1913. 

St.  Louis,  Missouri.  Committee  of  One  Hundred  for  the  Suppression  of 
Commercialized  Vice  in  St.  Louis.  Brief  in  support  of  citizens'  me- 
morial to  the  board  of  Police  Commissioners  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  on 
the  illegality  and  inexpediency  of  segregating  commercialized  vice  in 
St.  Louis. 

Seligman,  Edwin  R.  A.  The  Social  Evil.  With  Special  Reference  to  Condi- 
tions Existing  in  the  City  of  New  York.  2d  ed. ;  rev.,  with  new  ma- 
terial.    Putnam's,  New  York.     191 2. 

Addams,  Jane.     A  New  Conscience  and  an  Ancient  Evil.     New  York,  1913. 


454  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  IX 

Justice  and  Charity 
{Municipal  Courts) 

Foster,  S.  A.     The  Municipal  Court  of  Chicago.     2d  ed.     Chicago,  191 2. 

Harley,  Herbert.  The  Model  Municipal  Court.  National  Municipal  Re- 
viev.',  January,  1914. 

The  Municipal  Court  of  Chicago.  Seventh  Annual  Report  for  the  Year 
December  2,  1912,  to  November  30,  1913. 

Moley,  Raymond  C.  Justice  through  Common  Sense :  The  Conciliation 
Court.     The  Survey,  October  31,  1914. 

Bolster,  Wilfred.     Adult  Probation.     The  Annals,  March,  1914. 

New  York  State.     Probation  Commission.     Annual  Report,  1912-1913. 

Bartelme,  Mary  M.  The  Opportunity  for  Women  in  Court  Administra- 
tion.    The  Annals,  March,  19 14. 

{Juvenile  Courts) 

Mangold,  George  B.     Child  Problems.     Macmillan,  New  York.     1910. 

Eliot,  Thomas  D.  The  Trend  of  the  Juvenile  Court.  The  Annals,  March, 
1914. 

Lindsey,  Edward.  The  Juvenile  Court  Movement  from  a  Lawyer's  Stand- 
point.    The  Annals,  March,  1914. 

Report  of  Hon.  Ben  B.  Lindsey,  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Juvenile  Courts, 
before  the  International  Congress  on  the  Welfare  of  the  Child.  Held 
under  the  auspices  of  The  Mothers'  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
April  22-27,  1914- 

Street,  Elwood.  Going  the  Juvenile  Court  One  Better.  The  Survey, 
October  24,  19 14. 

Flexner,  Bernard,  and  Baldwin,  Roger  N.  Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation. 
Century,  New  York.     1914. 

New  York  State.  Probation  Commission.  Annual  Report.  1912-1913. 
Contains  report  of  an  inspection  of  the  Buffalo  ChDdren's  Court. 

Coulter,  Ernest  K.     The  Children  in  the  Shadow.     New  York,  1913. 

Court  of  Special  Sessions  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Annual  Report  for 
the  year  ending  December  31,  1913. 

Juvenile  Court,  City  and  County  of  Denver,  Colorado.     Reports. 

Eliot,  Thomas  D.  The  Juvenile  Court  and  the  Community.  Macmillan, 
New  York.     1914. 

Hornbeck,  S.  K.  Juvenile  Courts.  Prepared  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
Political  Science  Department  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  Madi- 
son, 1908. 

{Juvenile  Court  of  Chicago) 

Hurley,  T.  D.,  com  p.  Origin  of  the  Illinois  Juvenile  Court  Law;  Ju- 
venile courts  and  what  they  have  accomplished.  3d  ed.  Chicago, 
1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  455 

Juvenile  Court  and  Juvenile  Detention  Home.     (Cook  County,  Illinois.) 

Annual  Reports  for  the  year  1913. 
Breckinridge,  Sophonisba  P.,  and  Abbott,  Edith.     The  Delinquent  Child 

and  the  Home.     Chicago,  191 2. 

(Court  of  Domestic  Relations) 

The  Municipal  Court  of  Chicago.     Seventh  Annual  Report  for  the  year 

December  2,  191 2,  to  November  30,  1913. 
Gemmill,  William  N.     Chicago  Court  of  Domestic  Relations.     The  Annals, 

March,  1914. 

(New  York  Night  Court) 

Whitin,  Frederick  H.  The  Women's  Night  Court  in  New  York  City. 
The  Annals,  March,  19 14. 

(Psychopathic  Institutes) 

The  Municipal  Court  of  Chicago.  Seventh  Annual  Report  for  the  year 
December  2,  191 2,  to  November  30,  1913. 

Juvenile  Court  and  Juvenile  Detention  Home.  (Cook  County,  Illinois.) 
Annual  Reports  for  the  year  19 13. 

Chicago  Psychopathic  Laboratory.  National  Municipal  Review,  January, 
1915.     Notes  and  Events. 

Healy,  William,  M.D.  Medicopsychological  Work  in  Courts.  Reprinted 
from  the  Illinois  Medical  Journal,  October,  19 14. 

Spaulding,  Edith  R.,  M.D.,  and  Healy,  William,  M.D.  Inheritance  as  a 
Factor  in  Criminality.  A  Study  of  a  Thousand  Cases  of  Young  Re- 
peated Offenders.  Reprinted  from  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine,  February,  1914. 

Brenner,  Augusta  F.  A  Research  on  the  Proportion  of  Mental  Defectives 
among  Delinquents.  Reprinted  from  the  Journal  of  Criminal  Law 
and  Criminology,  November,  1914. 

Healy,  William,  M.D.  The  Individual  Delinquent.  Little,  Brown,  Bos- 
ton.    1915. 

Hickson,  William  J.,  M.D.  Organic  Brain  Lesions  in  Mental  Defectives. 
Reprinted  from  the  Illinois  Medical  Journal,  October,  1914. 

Ransom,  John  Edward.  A  Study  of  Mentally  Defective  Children  in 
Chicago.  An  Investigation  made  by  the  Juvenile  Protective  Associa- 
tion.    1915. 

(Public  Defender) 

Gray,  R.  S.     The  Advisability  of  a  Public  Defender.     The  Annals,  March, 

1914. 
A  Public  Defender  of  the  Poor.     The  World's  Work,  May,  1914. 
Bartlett,  Dana  W.     The  Public  Defender.     National  Municipal  Review, 

April,  1914.     Notes  and  Events. 
MacCuUoch,  Campbell.     Here  is  Justice!     Everybody's  Magazine,  August, 

1914. 


456  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Wood,  Walton  J.  The  Office  of  Public  Defender ;  letters  from  Walton  J. 
Wood,  public  defender,  to  bar  associations  of  New  York  and  Mil- 
waukee; comments  of  the  district  attorney,  judges  and  the  press  of 
Los  Angeles;  Los  Angeles  county  charter  provisions.  Los  Angeles, 
June,  1914. 

Wood,  Walton  J.  The  Place  of  the  Public  Defender  in  the  Administration 
of  Justice.  Address  before  the  California  Bar  Association  at  its  fifth 
annual  convention,  November,  19 14. 

New  York  Public  Library.  Municipal  Reference  Branch.  Selected  refer- 
ences on  the  office  of  public  defender.  Municipal  Reference  Library 
Notes,  January  27,  19 15. 

{Court  Fines  by  Installments) 

The  Payment  of  Fines  in  Installments  by  Ofifenders.  Municipal  Reference 
Library,  Chicago.     Mun.  Ref.  Bui.  No.  4.     November,  1914. 

An  Installment  Fine  as  an  Aid  to  Justice.  American  City,  January, 
1914.     Editorial  Comment. 

(Correctional  Institutions) 

Court  of  Special  Sessions  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Annual  Report  for 
the  year  ending  December  31,  19 13. 

Kansas  City  Municipal  Farm.  The  Topeka  Improvement  Survey,  Part 
III.     By  Zenas  L.  Potter.     May,  1914. 

Department  of  Public  Safety  of  the  City  of  Cincinnati:  Department  of 
Charities  and  Correction.     2d  Annual  Report  for  the  year  1913. 

Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  House  of  Correction  of  the  City  of 
Cleveland  for  the  year  19 13. 

Department  of  Public  Welfare  of  the  City  of  Cleveland :  Division  of  Chari- 
ties and  Correction.     Reports. 

(Socializing  Charity) 

Halbert,  L.  A.  Effective  Charity  Administration.  The  Annals,  May, 
1912. 

Municipal  Charities  Commission,  City  of  Los  Angeles,  California.  First 
Annual  Report,  July  i,  19 13,  to  July  i,  19 14. 

Department  of  Public  Safety  of  the  City  of  Cincinnati:  Department  of 
Charities  and  Correction.     2d  Annual  Report  for  the  year  1913. 

Norton,  W.  J.  Dr.  Geier's  Work  in  the  Cincinnati  Department  of  Chari- 
ties.    The  Survey,  May  9,  19 14. 

(Departments  of  Public  Welfare) 

Municipal  Employees  ask  for  Lower  Salaries.     The  Survey,  September  26, 

1914. 
Board  of  Public  Welfare,  Kansas  City,  Missouri.     Reports. 
The  Department  of  Public  Welfare  of  the  City  of  Dayton.     First  annual 

report  for  1914. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  457 

Department  of  Public  Welfare  of  the  City  of  Chicago.     First  semiannual 

report.     Chicago,  March  15,  1Q15. 
Department  of  Public  Welfare  of  the  City  of  Cleveland.     Reports. 
Social  Welfare  Department  of  the  City  and  County  of  Denver,  Colorado. 

Reports.     19 13  to  date. 

{Widows'  Pensions) 

Laws  Relating  to  "Mothers'  Pensions"  in  the  United  States,  Denmark 
and  New  Zealand.  United  States  Department  of  Labor :  Children's 
Bureau.     Publication  No.  7.     Washington,  19 14. 

Report  Relative  to  Proposed  Legislation  Providing  Pensions  to  Widows 
with  Children.  Submitted  to  Hon.  William  A.  Prendergast,  Comp- 
troller of  the  City  of  New  York,  by  the  Bureau  of  Municipal  Investi- 
gation and  Statistics.     January  25,  191 5. 

Department  of  Public  Safety  of  the  City  of  Cincinnati :  Department  of 
Charities  and  Correction.     2d  annual  report  for  the  year  1913. 

Widows'  Pension  Bureau  of  San  Francisco.     Report  for  the  year  1914. 

(Municipal  Lodging  Homes) 

St.  Louis,  Missouri.  Public  Library.  List  of  references  on  municipal 
lodging  houses.     In  Monthly  Bulletin,  new  series,  July,  191 2. 

Report  of  the  Mayor's  Commission  on  Unemployment.  Chicago,  March, 
1914. 

Department  of  Public  Safety  of  the  City  of  Cincmnati :  Department  of 
Charities  and  Correction.     2d  annual  report  for  the  year  1913. 

Kingsbury,  John  A.  Our  Army  of  the  Unemployed  :  A  Momentous  Prob- 
lem of  Relief  and  of  Industry.  The  American  Review  of  Reviews,  April, 
1914. 

Steams,  George  W.  Giving  Down-and-Outers  a  Chance  to  Come  Back. 
New  York  City's  Lodging  House  is  no  longer  a  "Morgue  of  the  Liv- 
ing."    New  York  Tribune,  January  24,  1915. 

Brown,  Edwin  A.  Municipal  Lodging  Houses.  National  Municipal 
Review,  January,  191 5. 

Jakobi,  Paula.     The  Lodging-House.     The  Outlook,  April  21,  1915. 

{Municipal  Employment) 

Brookings,  W.  D.,  and  Ringwalt,  R.  C.  Briefs  for  Debate.  2d  ed.  Long- 
mans Green,  New  York.  191 1.  Contains  a  bibliography  on  mu- 
nicipal aid  for  the  unemployed. 

Chicago  Municipal  Markets  Commission.  Report  to  the  mayor  and  alder- 
men on  a  practical  plan  for  relieving  destitution  and  unemployment  in 
the  city  of  Chicago.     December  28,  1914. 

Chicago,  Illinois.  Mayor's  commission  on  unemployment.  Report, 
March,  1914. 

Kellor,  Frances  A.  Out  of  Work  :  A  Study  of  Unemployment.  Putnam's, 
New  York.     1915. 


458  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Kellor,  Frances  A.  Is  Unemployment  a  Municipal  Problem?  National 
Municipal  Review,  April,  1914. 

Kellor,  Frances  A.  Unemployment  in  Our  Cities.  National  Municipal 
Review,  January,  1915. 

Kellor,  Frances  A.  Unemplojonent  in  American  Cities :  The  Record  for 
1914-15.      National  Municipal  Review,  July,  1915. 

New  York's  Program  for  Unemployment.     The  Survey,  December  26,  1914. 

Unemployment  Problems  and  Relief  Efforts  in  Seventeen  Cities.  The 
Survey,  January  2,  191 5. 

Municipal  Charities  Commission,  City  of  Los  Angeles,  California.  First 
annual  report,  July  i,  1913,  to  July  i,  1914. 

Citizens'  Committee  on  Unemployment  and  the  Milwaukee  Free  Employ- 
ment Office.  Second  annual  report  to  the  Common  Council,  City  of 
Milwaukee;  Board  of  Supervisors,  County  of  Milwaukee;  and  the 
Industrial  Commission  of  Wisconsin,  for  the  year  ending  October  31, 

1913- 
Industrial    Commission   of   Wisconsin,    Madison,   Wisconsin.     Report   on 

Allied  Functions.     For  the  two  years  ending  June  30,  1914. 
Industrial    Commission    of    Wisconsin,    Madison,    Wisconsin.     Bulletin. 

May  20,  19 13.     This  number  contains  a  report  on  the  Wisconsin  Free 

Employment  Offices. 
Chicago's  City  Grocery  Store  for  the  Unemployed.     The  Survey,  March  14, 

1914. 
Matthews,  William  H.     Wages  from  Relief  Funds.     The  Survey,  June  12, 

1915- 
Nash,  Margaret.     Municipal  Employment  Bureaus  in  the  United  States. 

National  Municipal  Review,  July,  1915. 

CHAPTER  X 

Indoor  Education 
{General) 
Monroe,  Paul.     A  Cyclopedia  of  Education.     5  vols.     Macmillan,  New 

York.     1911-1913. 
Perry,   Arthur   Cecil.     Problems   of   the   Elementary   School.     Appleton, 

New  York.     1910. 
Munroe,  James  Phinney.     New  Demands  in  Education.     Doubleday,  New 

York.     1912. 
King,    Irving.     Social    Aspects    of    Education.     Macmillan,    New    York. 

1913- 
King,   Irving.     Education  for   Social   Efficiency.     Appleton,    New   York. 

1913- 
Garber,  John  Palmer.     Current  Activities  and  Influence  of    Education. 

Lippincott,  Philadelphia.     1913. 
Maxwell,  W.  H.     A  Quarter  Century  of  Public  School  Development.     New 

York,  191 2. 
Dresslar,    Fletcher    Bascom.     School    Hygiene.     Macmillan,    New    York. 

1913- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  459 

Burks,  Frances  Williston,  and  Jesse  D.  Health  and  the  School.  Appleton, 
New  York.     1913. 

Cabot,  Ella  Lyman.  Volunteer  Help  to  the  Schools.  Houghton,  Bostoa 
1914. 

National  Education  Association.     Proceedings. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 

Compulsory  School  Attendance.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 
Washington,  1914.     (Bibliography.) 

Special  Features  in  City  School  Systems.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion.    Washington,  1913. 

A  Generation  of  Progress  in  Our  Public  Schools.  Issued  by  the  Public 
Education  Association,  Philadelphia.     1914. 

Martin,  John.  School  Progress  in  New  York  City.  National  Municipal 
Review,  July,  19 13. 

New  York  City.  School  Inquiry  Committee.  Final  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee.    3  vols.     1913. 

New  York  School  Inquiry :  Reply  of  the  Superintendents  to  Certain  Find- 
ings and  Recommendations  of  Prof.  Frank  M.  McMurry  and  Prof. 
Edward  C.  Elliott.  Prepared  by  a  committee.  Edited  by  Joseph  S. 
Taylor,  2,275  Loring  Place,  The  Bronx,  New  York. 

A  Primer  of  Public  School  Progress.  Issued  by  the  Public  Education  Asso- 
ciation of  the  City  of  New  York,  19 14. 

Mayers,  Lewis.  The  New  York  School  Inquiry.  National  Municipal 
Review,  April,  1914. 

(Kindergartens) 

Kindergartens  in  the  United  States:    Statistics  and   Present   Problems. 

Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.     Washington,  1914. 
Ward,   Florence   Elizabeth.     The  Montessori  Method  and  the  American 

School.     Macmillan,  New  York.     1913. 
O' Grady,  Alice.     American  Kindergartens  and  Montessori  Schools.     Ediica- 

tional  Bimonthly,  April,  19 14. 
International  Kindergarten  Union.     Proceedings. 

{Elementary  Grades) 

Perry,  Arthur  Cecil.  Problems  of  the  Elementary  School.  Appleton, 
New  York.     1910. 

Hughes,  Harold  F.  Suiting  the  Course  to  the  Child :  Fresno's  System  of 
Grading.     American  School  Board  Journal,  March,   1913. 

Bunker,  Frank  F.  A  Better  Articulation  of  the  Parts  of  the  Public  School 
System.     Educational  Review,  March,  1914. 

The  Money  Cost  of  Repetition  Versus  the  Money  Saving  Through  Accelera- 
tion.    Russell  Sage  Foundation  :   Division  of  Education.     No.  Em. 

The  Relation  Between  Entering  Age  and  Subsequent  Progress  among  School 
Children.  Russell  Sage  Foundation :  Division  of  Education.  No.  E 
112. 


46o  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(Manual  Training) 

Ham,  Charles  Henry.  Mind  and  Hand.  American  Book  Company,  New 
York.     1900. 

Chamberlain,  Arthur  H.  A  Bibliography  of  the  Manual  Arts.  A. 
Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago.     1902. 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education. 
Ginn,  Boston.     191 2. 

Vocational  Training  in  the  United  States.  A  summary  by  Wallace  E. 
Hackett.  Published  by  the  Board  of  School  Directors,  Reading,  Pa. 
(It  gives  a  list  of  the  practical  arts  subjects  taught  in  each  grade  in 
147  cities  in  the  United  States  and  the  time  devoted  to  these  sub- 
jects.) 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Prevocational  Education  in  the  Public  Schools. 
Houghton,  Boston.      191 5. 

Dewey,  John.  The  School  and  Society.  Rev.  ed.  The  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  Chicago.     1915. 

{Domestic  Science) 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.     Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.     Ginn, 

Boston.     191 2. 
Kittredge,  Mabel  Hyde.     Housekeeping  Centers  in  Settlements  and  Public 

Schools.     The  Survey,  May  3,  1913. 
Clewell,  H.  E.     The  "Holly  Plan"  for  the  Teaching  of  Domestic  Science 

and  Art  in  the  Public  Schools.     American  Education,  April,  1914. 

(Art) 

The  Board  of  Public  Education  :  School  District  of  Pittsburgh.  2d  Annual 
Report  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1913. 

Department  of  Education.  The  City  of  New  York.  i6th  Annual  Report 
of  the  City  Superintendent  of  Schools.  1913-1914.  Drawing  in 
High  Schools;  Drawing  in  Elementary  Schools;  Shop  work  in  Ele- 
mentary Schools. 

The  School  Art  League,  New  York.     Bulletins. 

Putnam,  Alice.  Children's  Art  Hours  in  the  Carnegie  Institute.  Art 
and  Progress,  August,  1914. 

Clewell,  H.  E.  The  "Holly  Plan"  for  the  Teaching  of  Domestic  Science 
and  Art  in  the  Public  Schools.     American  Education,  April,  1914. 

Bailey,  Henry  Turner,  and  Burrage,  Severance.  School  Sanitation  and 
Decoration.     Heath,  Boston.     1899. 

Bailey,  Henry  Turner,  ed.  School  Arts  Journal.     Monthly. 

{Mttsic) 

The  Board  of  Public  Education.     School  District  of  Pittsburgh.     2d  Annual 

Report  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1913. 
Claxton,  Philander  P.     The  Place  of  Music  in  Education.     School  Music, 

January,  1913. 
Earhart,  Will.     Music  in  the  Public  Schools.     Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of 

Education,  No.  2,2,,  Washington,  1914. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  46 1 

(Civics^ 

Hill,  Mabel.     Ihe  Teaching  of  Civics.     Houghton,  Boston.     1914. 

Moody,  Walter  D.  Wacker's  Manual  of  the  Plan  of  Chicago.  Especially 
Prepared  for  Study  in  the  Schools  of  Chicago.     1912. 

Package  Libraries  for  the  Study  of  Civics.  Chicago  Public  Library  Book 
Bulletin.     December,  19 14. 

A  Neighborhood  Studying  Itself.  By  f:dward  L.  Burchard,  Director  of 
Extension  Department  of  the  Chicago  School  of  Civics  and  Philan- 
thropy.    An  address  at  the  City  Club  of  Chicago,  March  6,  191 5. 

Dana,  John  Cotton.  The  Public  Library  and  Publicity  in  Municipal 
Affairs.     Library  Journal,  April,  1913. 

Special  Features  in  City  School  Systems.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education,  Washington,  1913. 

Connolly,  Louise.  Sane  Methods  of  Civic  Education.  National  Municipal 
Review,  April,  1914. 

Civic  Education  and  the  National  Bureau  of  Education.  National  Mu- 
nicipal Review,  April,  1914. 

(Self -Government) 

Gill,  Wilson  L.  A  New  Citizenship.  American  Patriotic  League,  Phila- 
delphia.    1913. 

(Moral  Education) 

Bible  Study  in  North  Dakota  Schools.     The  Literary  Digest,  February  14, 

1914. 
Palmer,    George    Herbert.     Ethical    and    Moral    Instruction    in    Schools. 

Houghton,  Boston.     1909. 
Religious  Education.    The  Journal  of  the  Religious  Education  Association, 

Chicago. 
Davis,  J.  B.     Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance.     Ginn,  Boston.     1914- 

(Hygienic  Teaching) 

Ritchie,  J.  W.  Primer  of  Hygiene  and  Sanitation ;  being  a  simple  text-book 
on  personal  and  public  health.     Yonkers,  19 13. 

Coleman,  W.  M.  A  Handbook  of  the  People's  Health ;  a  text-book  of  sani- 
tation and  hygiene  for  the  use  of  schools.     New  York,  19 13. 

Lowry,  E.  B.,  M.D.  Teaching  Sex  Hygiene  in  the  Public  Schools.  Forbes, 
Chicago.     1914. 

Phelps,  Editha.  Sex  Hygiene  in  the  Schools.  Life  and  Labor,  February, 
1914. 

Special  Features  in  City  School  Systems.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Washington,  1913. 

International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.  Proceedings.  Buffalo,  1913. 
Printed  by  the  Courier  Company,  Buffalo. 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 

Hoag,  Ernest  Bryant,  M.D.,  and  Terman,  Lewis  M.  Health  Work  in  the 
Schools.    Houghton,  Boston.     1914. 


462  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

{Physical  Training) 

Childs,  W.  L.     How  Can  Physical  Training  be  made  of  Greatest  Value  to 

the  High  School  Boy?     School  Review,  February,  19 14. 
Martin,  John.     School  Progress  in  New  York  City.     National  Municipal 

Review,  July,  1913. 
Raub,   Edgar  L.     Athletics  for  Elementary  Schoolboys  in  Boston.     In 

School  Hygiene  by  Dr.  W.  Carson  Ryan.     United  States  Bureau  of 

Education  Bulletin,  1913. 

(Exceptional  Children) 

Van  Sickle,  James  H.,  Witmer,  Lightner,  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P.     Provision 

for  Exceptional  Children  in  Public  Schools.     Bulletin  of  the  Bureau 

of  Education,  Washington,  191 1. 
Special  Features  in    City    School    Systems.     Bulletin  of    the    Bureau    of 

Education.     Washington,  1913. 
International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.     Proceedings.     Buffalo,  1913. 

Published  by  the  Courier  Company,  Buffalo. 
Farrell,  Elizabeth  E.     A  Study  of  the  School  Inquiry  Report  on  Ungraded 

Classes.     Psychological  Clinic,  April,  19 14.     (New  York  City.) 
Ayres,  Leonard  P.     Laggards  in  Our  Schools.     Russell  Sage  Foundation 

Publication.     Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York.     19 10. 
Reeves,  Edith.     Care  and  Education  of  Crippled  Children  in  the  United 

States.     Russell   Sage  Foundation  Publications.     Survey  Associates, 

New  York.     1914. 

(School  Lunches) 

Bryant,  Louise  Stevens.  School  Feeding :  Its  History  and  Practice  at 
Home  and  Abroad.     Lippincott,  Philadelphia.     1913. 

International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.     Proceedings.     Buffalo,  1913. 

Boughton,  Alice.  The  Administration  of  School  Lunches  in  Cities.  Journal 
of  Home  Economics,  June,  1914. 

School  Lunches  in  Philadelphia.  Published  by  the  School  Lunch  Com- 
mittee of  the  Home  and  School  League,  Philadelphia.  1912-1913. 
(Bibliography.) 

The  School  Lunch  Service  in  New  York  City.  By  Edward  F.  Brown, 
Executive  Secretary  New  York  School  Lunch  Committee.  Bulletin 
No.  3.  Issued  by  the  Division  of  Reference  and  Research,  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  New  York  City. 

The  Provision  of  School  Lunches.  National  Municipal  Review,  January, 
1914.     Notes  and  Events. 

(The  Home  School) 

Condon,  Randall  J.  The  Home  School.  Eighty-fourth  Annual  Report 
of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools  for  the  Year  ending  August  31,  1913. 
pp.  67-72. 

Condon,  Randall  J.  The  Home  School  —  An  Experiment  in  Household 
Education.     National     Education     Association.     Proceedings.     1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  463 

CHAPTER  XI 
Outdoor  Education 


{School  Gardens) 


Special  Features  in  City  School  Systems.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion.    Washington,  1913. 

Martin,  John.  School  Progress  in  New  York  City.  National  Municipal 
Review,  July,  1913. 

Cabot,  Ella  Lyman.  Volunteer  Help  to  the  Schools.  Houghton,  Boston. 
1914. 

Cadwallader,  Starr.  The  Cleveland  Home  Gardening  Association.  The 
Chautauquan,  June,  1906. 

Kilpatrick,  V.  E.  School  Gardens  in  America.  American  School  Board 
Journal,  May,  19 14. 

Dyer,  Walter  A.     School  Gardens.     Craftsman,  June,  19 14. 

Hanmer,  Lee  P.,  and  Knight,  Howard  R.  Sources  of  Information  on  Recre- 
ation. Russell  Sage  Foundation :  Department  of  Recreation.  No. 
Rec.  136. 

Greene,  M.  Louise.  Among  School  Gardens.  Russell  Sage  Foundation 
Publications.     Survey  Associates,  New  York.     1910. 

{Agricultural  Education) 

Robison,  C.  H.,  and  Jenks,  F.  B.  Agricultural  Instruction  in  High  Schools. 
Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.     Washington,  1913. 

Hummel,  W.  G.  Community  or  Local  Extension  Work  of  the  High  School 
Agricultural  Department.  Berkeley,  California.  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, 1914. 

Meek,  C.  S.  Some  Experiments  in  School  Systems  and  Their  Outcomes : 
Developing  a  School  System.  National  Education  Association.  Pro- 
ceedings.    1913. 

Palmer,  Clayton  F.  Agriculture  and  Gardening  in  the  Public  Schools. 
National  Education  Association.     Proceedings.     1913. 

{Home  Credits) 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 

Alderman,   L.   R.     School   Credit   for   Home  Work.     Houghton,   Boston. 

1915- 
Schermerhorn,  Grace.     School  Credit  for  Home  Work  in  Home  Economics. 

Journal  of  Home  Economics,  April,  1914. 
Alderman,  L.  R.     School  Credit  for  Home  Industrial  Work.     National 

Education  Assocation.     Proceedings.     1913. 

{Vacation  Schools) 

Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.  Wilder  Use  of  the  School  Plant.  Russell  Sage 
Foundation  Publications.  Charities  Publication  Committee,  New 
York.     19 10. 


464  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     American  Vacation  Schools  of  191 2.     Pamphlet 

No.  R  133.     Russell  Sage  Foundation.     1913. 
Martin,  John.     School  Progress  in  New  York  City.     National  Municipal 

Review,  July,  19 13. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.    Vacation  Schools.    Rec.  Ser.  No.  56.    Russell 

Sage  Foundation.     1914. 

{Open  Air  Schools) 

Open   Air   Schools.     Russell   Sage   Foundation:    Division   of   Education. 

1913- 

International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.     Proceedings.     Buffalo,  19 13. 

Warren,  Benjamin  S.  Open  Air  Schools  for  the  Prevention  and  Cure  of 
Tuberculosis  Among  Children.  Government  Printing  Ofl&ce,  Wash- 
ington.    191 2. 

Bryant,  Louise  Stevens.  School  Feeding:  Its  History  and  Practice  at 
Home  and  Abroad.     Lippincott,  Philadelphia.     1913. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.  The  Fifteenth  International  Congress  on  Hygiene 
and  Demography,  held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  191 2.  Bulletin  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education.     Washington,  1913. 

Hughes,  Harold  F.  Housing  the  Overflow.  The  Fresno  Type  of  Open 
Air  School.     American  School  Board  Journal,  June,  1914. 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.     Open-Air  Schools.     Doubleday,  New  York.     1910. 

Fresh  Air  Classes  for  Anemic  Children.  In  Ninth  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  the  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis  of  the  Charity  Organization 
Society  of  the  City  of  New  York.     1911-1912-1913. 

(Welfare  Work) 

Johnson,   Eleanor  Hope.     Social   Service  and   the  Public   Schools.     The 

Survey,  May  3,  1913. 
Lewis,  William  D.     Democracy's  High  School.     Houghton,  Boston.     1914. 
Flexner,  Mary.    The  Visiting  Teacher  in  Action.     The  Survey,  May  3, 

1913- 

{Evening  Schools) 

Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant.     Russell  Sage 

Foundation    Publications.     Charities    Publication    Committee.    New 

York.     1910. 
Martin,  John.     School  Progress  in  New  York  City.     National  Municipal 

Review,  July,  1913. 
Gilbert,  I.  B.     Evening  Classes  in  the  Union  High  School,  Grand  Rapids, 

Michigan.     Vocational  Education,  March,  1914. 
Mosser,  George  H.    A  Vocational  Night  School  with  an  Enrollment  of 

over  2000.      American  City,  January,  1915. 

(School  Savings  Banks) 

McWilliam,  E.  G.  School  Savings  Banks  and  Thrift.  American  School 
Board  Journal,  November,  1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  465 

Holmes,  Clay  W.     The  Modem  School  Savings  Plan.     American  School 

Board  Journal,  March,  1914. 
School  Savings  Banks.     American  Education.     April,  1915. 
The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Report.     1913. 
School  Board  as  Banker  for  Children.     The  Survey,  April  18,  1914. 

{Museum  Cooperation) 

International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene.     Proceedings.     Buffalo,  1913. 

Harrington,  John  Walker.  A  New  Art  in  Health  Exhibits.  The  World's 
Work,  July,  1913. 

Rea,  Paul  Marshall.  Educational  Work  of  American  Museums :  Museum 
Cooperation  with  Public  Schools.  Report  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1913.     Vol.  I. 

Rea,  Paul  Marshall.  Educational  Work  of  American  Museums  :  Traveling 
School  E.xhibits.  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 1913.     Vol.  I. 

Rathmann,  Carl  G.  The  Educational  Museum  of  the  St.  Louis  Public 
Schools.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  48.  Washington, 
1914. 

(All-year  School) 

Newark  All- Year  Schools.     Fifty-seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of 

Education  of  Newark,  New  Jersey.     1912-1913.     pp.  68-71. 
Dana,  John  Cotton.     All- Year  Schools.     Independent,  January  16,  1913. 

{Gary) 

Burris,  William  Paxton.     The  Public  School  System  of  Gary,  Indiana. 

Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.     Washington,  1914. 
Dorr,  Rheta  Childe.     Keeping  the  Children  in  School.     Reprinted  from 

Hampton's  Magazine,  July,   1911. 
Gibson,    David.    The   Wirt    School    System.     Reprinted    from    Common 

Sense,  June,  191 2. 
Hendrick,  Burton  J.     Children  of  the  Steel  Kings.     McCliire's  Magazine, 

September,  19 13. 

{The  Complete  School  in  Brooklyn) 

The  Reorganization  of  Public  School  89,  Brooklyn,  New  York.  A  Report 
made  to  President  Thomas  W.  Churchill,  Board  of  Education,  New 
York  City,  by  William  Wirt,  January  19,  1915. 

CHAPTER  Xn 

Higher  Education 
{GeneraVj 

Henderson,  C(harles)  Hanford.  Education  and  the  Larger  Life. 
Houghton,  Boston.      1902. 

2H 


466  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

{Junior  High  Schools) 

The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education :  Preliminary  Statements  by 
Chairmen  of  Committees  of  the  Commission  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association.     Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington, 

1913- 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Report.     1913. 

Johnston,  Charles  Hughes,  ed.  The  Modern  High  School :  Its  Adminis- 
tration and  Extension.     Scribner's,  New  York.     1914. 

Wiles,  Ernest  P.     The  Junior  High  School.     Teacher,  December,  1913. 

Mackie,  Ransom  A.  Progressive  High  School  Reorganization.  Education, 
March,  1913. 

Garfield  Junior  High  School,  Richmond,  Indiana.     Report.     1914-1915. 

Monroe,  Paul,  ed.  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.  Macmillan,  New 
York.     1914. 

{Sdf-Government) 

Lewis,  William  D.  Democracy's  High  School.  Houghton,  Boston. 
1914. 

Garfield  Junior  High  School,  Richmond,  Indiana.     Report.     1914-1915. 

Sisson,  Edward  O.  Moral  Education  in  the  High  School.  Reprinted  from 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  edited  by  Paul  Monroe.  Mac- 
millan, New  York.     1914. 

{Vocational  Education) 

Leake,  A.  H.  Industrial  Education,  Its  Problems,  Methods  and  Dan- 
gers.    Boston,  1913. 

Monroe,  Paul.     Industrial  Education.     Macmillan,  New  York.     191 2. 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.  Giim, 
Boston.     191 2. 

Prosser,  C.  A.  Progress  in  Vocational  Education.  Department  of  the 
Interior:   Bureau  of  Education.     Chapter  X.,  Vol.  i,  1912. 

Evans,  A.  M.  Vocational  Education  in  Wisconsin.  Articles  prepared  for 
the  Chicago  Record-Herald.  1913.  Published  by  the  Commercial 
Club  of  Chicago. 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Some  Conditions  Affecting  Problems  of  Industrial 
Education  in  78  American  School  Systems.  Russell  Sage  Foundation : 
Division  of  Education.     E.  135. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education.  Proceedings 
and  Publications. 

Nock,  Albert  J.  An  Adventure  in  Industrial  Education.  American  Maga- 
zine, April,  19 14. 

Couffer,  U.  G.  The  Sewickley,  Pennsylvania,  Plan.  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, March  5,  19 14. 

Taylor,  Edwin  L.  The  Adaptation  of  Manual  Training  to  Community 
Needs.     Manual  Training  Magazine,  April,  1914. 

Snedden,  David  Samuel.  Problem  of  Vocational  Education.  Houghton, 
Boston.     1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  467 

Weeks,  Ruth  M.  The  People's  School :  A  Study  in  Vocational  Training. 
Boston,  191 2. 

Vocational  Education  and  Vocational  Guidance.  A  Survey  and  Pre- 
liminary Report  by  a  Committee  appointed  by  the  Iowa  State 
Teachers'  Association.  Published  by  the  State  Department  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Dcs  Moines,  Iowa. 

Vocational  Education.  Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  Commonwealth 
Club  of  California.  Archibald  B.  Anderson,  State  Normal  School, 
San  Francisco,  Chairman. 

(Prevocational  Schools) 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.  Ginn, 
Boston.     191 2. 

Hanus,  P.  H.     Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education.     Boston,  1908. 

Smith,  Z.  M.  What  the  Public  Schools  of  Indiana  are  Doing  in  Pre- 
Vocational  Agricultural  Work.  Bulletin  No.  16,  Vocational 
Series  No.  16.  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Indianapo- 
lis, Indiana. 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Prevocational  Education  in  the  Public  Schools. 
Houghton,  Boston.     1915. 

(Industrial  Schools) 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.     Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.     Ginn, 

Boston.     191 2. 
Forbes,  George  M.     Organization  and  Administration  of  Industrial  Schools. 

American  School  Board  Journal,  January,  1913. 
Munroe,    James    Phinney.     New    Demands    in    Education.     Doubleday, 

New  York.     191 2. 
Woolman,  Mary  Schenck.     The  Making  of  a  Trade  School.     Whitcomb 

and  Barrows,  Boston.     1910. 
Massachusetts  Independent  Vocational  Schools  in  Operation  May  i,  1914. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  :   Board  of  Education.     Bulletin 

No.  5.     1914. 
Glynn,  Frank  L.     Trade  Schools  in  the  Public-School  System.     National 

Education  Association.     Proceedings. 
Schneider,  Herman.     Vocational  Schools.     Report  to  the  Board  of  Estimate 

and  Apportionment  Committee  on  School  Inquiry.     New  York,  1913. 

(Vocational  High  Scliools) 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.  Ginn, 
Boston.     1912. 

Snyder,  Henry.  A  High  School  that  Trains  the  Hand  as  well  as  the  Mind. 
American  City,  February,  1914. 

Flower,  B.  O.  A  Public  School  that  makes  for  Efficiency.  American  Re- 
view of  Reviews,  .\ugust,  1914. 

Nearing,  Scott.  Public  Schools  that  are  Making  Good  :  High  Schools  that 
are  a  Step  in  Life.     Ladies'  Home  Journal,  May,  1913. 


468  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lcavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Vocational  Purpose  in  the  Manual  Training 
High  School,  Indianapolis,  Indiana.     Vocational  Education,  September, 

IQI2. 

What  We  Are  Tr>'ing  To  Do.  By  Thirty-five  Teachers  of  the  Washington 
Irving  High  School  in  New  York  City.     Tlie  World's  Work,  May,  1913. 

Hendrick,  Burton  J.  A  School  for  Womanhood.  McClure's  Mag.,  May, 
1913- 

{Cooperative  Schools) 

Special  Features  in  City  School  Systems.  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation.    Washington,  19 13. 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.  Ginn, 
Boston.     191 2. 

Leighton,  E.  V.  Public  Schools  that  are  not  Failures :  II.  Beverly  Inde- 
pendent Industrial  School.     Popular  Educator,  April,  1913. 

McCann,  Matthew  R.  The  Fitchburg  Plan  of  Cooperative  Industrial 
Education.     Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.    Washington,  1913. 

Roberts,  William  M.  The  Development  of  Part-Time  Education  for 
Apprentices  in  Chicago.     Vocational  Education,  January,  1914. 

Roberts,  William  M.  Trade  Agreements  in  Industrial  Education  of  Appren- 
tices in  Chicago.  National  Education  Association.  Proceedings. 
1914. 

{Continuation  Schools) 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.  Ginn, 
Boston.  191 2. 

Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.  The  Continuation  School :  Cincinnati's  Examples. 
Vocational  Education,  January,  1913. 

Roberts,  Edward  D.  The  Cincinnati  Continuation  Schools.  National 
Education  Association.     Proceedings.     19 13. 

Cooley,  R.  L.  The  Apprenticeship  and  Continuation  Schools  of  Mil- 
waukee, Wisconsin.  National  Education  Association.  Proceedings. 
1914. 

Jones,  A.  J.  The  Continuation  School  in  the  United  States.  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education.     Bulletin.     Washington,  1907. 

{Vocational  Guidance) 

Bloomfield,    Meyer.     The    Vocational    Guidance    of    Youth.     Houghton, 

Boston.     191 1. 
Leavitt,  Frank  Mitchell.     Some  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.    Ginn, 

Boston.     191 2. 
Brooklyn.     Public  Library.     Choosing  a  Vocation.     A  list  of  books  and 

references  on  vocational  choice,  guidance  and  training  in  the  Brooklyn 

Public  Library.     1913. 
Boston.     Vocation    Bureau.     Bibliography   of   books   and    periodicals   in 

English  and  German,  dealing  with  vocational  direction. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  469 

Vocational  Guidance  —  Work  of  the  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston.  Voca- 
tion Bureau,  Boston.     191 5. 

Bloorafield,  Meyer,  and  Wentworth,  Laura  V.  The  Vocational  Counselor 
in  Action.     The  Survey,  May  3,  1913. 

Goodwin,  Frank  P.  Vocational  Guidance  in  Cincinnati.  Vocational 
Education,  March,  1914. 

Giles,  F.  M.  Vocational  Guidance  in  High  School.  School  Review,  April, 
1914. 

Ranck,  Samuel  H.  Library  Work  in  Vocational  Guidance.  Library 
Journal,  September,  19 14. 

Reed,  Anna  Y.  Seattle  Children  in  School  and  in  Industry.  Board  of 
School  Directors.     Seattle,  1915. 

Allen,  F.  J.  The  Vocation  Bureau  and  the  Boston  School  System.  Na- 
tional Municipal  Review,  January,  1913. 

Bloomlield,  Meyer,  ed.    Readings  in^ Vocational  Guidance.     Ginn,  Boston. 

1915- 
Davis,  Jesse  Buttrick.     Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance.     Ginn,  Boston. 

1914. 
National  Vocational  Guidance  Association.     Proceedings. 

{Junior  Colleges) 

Johnston,  Charles  Hughes,  ed.  The  Modern  High  School :  Its  Administra- 
tion and  Extension.     Scribner's,  New  York.     1914. 

McLane,  C.  L.  The  Junior  College  or  Upward  Extension  of  the  High 
School.    School  Review,  March,  1913. 

{Municipal  Universities) 

Dabney,  Charles  William.  The  Municipal  University  and  Its  Work. 
National  Education  Association.     Proceedings.     191 2. 

Dabney,  Charles  William.  A  Study  of  the  Student  Body  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cincinnati :  A  Municipal  Institution.  National  Municipal 
Review,  January,  1914. 

Kolbe,  P.  R.  The  History  of  the  Municipal  University  Movement  in 
Mron.  Transaction  Forty-fourth  Annual  Meeting  Ohio  College 
Association. 

An  instructive  article  on  the  subject  of  municipal  universities  appeared 
as  an  editorial  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  January  11,  1914. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PuBuc  Libraries  and  Museums 
{General) 
Bostwick,    Arthur    Elmore.     The   American    Public    Library.     Appleton, 

New  York.     1910. 
Green,  Samuel  Swett.     The  Public  Library  Movement  in  the  United  States, 

1853-1893.     Boston  Book  Company,  Boston.     1913. 
American  Library  .Association,  Bulletin.     September,  1913. 
Ahem,  Miss  M.   E.     Library  Activities  during  1912-1913.     Report  of  the 


470  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 

1913.     Vol.  I,  Washington,  1914. 
Benton,  Josiah  H.     The  Working  of  the  Boston  Public  Library.     Boston, 

1914. 
Comstock,  Sarah.     Eight  Million  Books  a  Year.     TIic  World's  Work,  May, 

1913- 

Baldwin,  E.  V.     Library  Ser\dce.     American  Library  Association.     1914. 

American  Library  Association.  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Rela- 
tions of  the  Public  Library  to  the  Municipality.  Reprinted  in  pamphlet 
form. 

American  Library  Association.     Proceedings  of  the  Annual  Meetings. 

The  Library  Journal.     R.  R.  Bowker  Company,  New  York. 

Public  Libraries.     Published  by  the  Library  Bureau,  Chicago. 

League  of  Library  Commissions.     Year  Book.     191 2. 

Carr,  John  Foster.  What  the  Library  can  do  for  our  Foreign-born.  Li- 
brary Jourtial,  October,  1913. 

Campbell,  J.  Maud.  WTiat  the  Foreigner  has  done  for  One  Library.  Li- 
brary Journal,  November,  1913. 

Rea,  Paul  Marshall.  Educational  Work  of  American  Museums.  Report  of 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1913.     Vol.   I. 

Oilman,  Benjamin  Ives.  Popular  Education  in  Fine  Art  in  the  United 
States.  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
the  year  ended  June  30,  19 13.     Vol.  i. 

{Work  with  Children) 

Olcott,  Frances  Jenkins.  The  Children's  Free  Library  and  City  Educa- 
tion.    American  City,  March,  1913. 

Olcott,  F.  J.  Library  Work  with  Children.  American  Library  Associa- 
tion, 1914. 

Comstock,  Sarah.  New  York's  Story  Lady.  American  Magazine,  Febru- 
ary, 1914. 

{Branch  Libraries) 

Hunt,    Clara  Whitehill.     Brooklyn  Opens  the   First   Children's   Branch. 

Library  Journal,  October,  19 14. 
Dana,   John   Cotton.     The   Public   Library   and   Publicity   in   Municipal 

Affairs.     Library  Journal,  April,  1913. 
Chicago's  Interesting  Municipal  Motor  Service.     The  Power  Wagon,  June  i , 

1914. 

{Municipal  Reference  Libraries) 

Report  to  National  Municipal  League  of  Committee  on  Municipal  Refer- 
ence Libraries,  November,  1910.  National  Conference  for  Good  City 
Government,  Buffalo,  19 10.     Proceedings. 

Municipal  Reference  I^ibraries  and  Archives.  National  Municipal  League. 
Minutes  of  the  Seventeenth  Annual  Meeting,  Richmond,  191 1.  Na- 
tional Municipal  Review,  Vol.  i,  sup. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  471 

Kaiser,  J.  B.  Law,  Legislative  and  Municipal  Reference  Libraries.  Bos- 
ton Book  Company,  Boston.     19 14. 

Crecraft,  Earl  W.  The  Municipal  Reference  Library.  National  Munic- 
ipal Review,  October,  1913. 

(School  and  Library  Cooperation) 

Legler,  Henry  E.     Educational  By-Products  in  Library  Work.      National 

Education  Association.     Proceedings.     1912. 
Greenman,    Edward    D.     United    States    Bureau    of    Education    Library, 

Washington,  D.  C.     The  Development  of  Secondary  School  Libraries. 

Library  Journal,  April,  1913. 
Bostwick,  Arthur  Elmore.     The  Public  Library,  the  Public  School,  and 

the     Social     Center    Movement.     National     Education    Association. 

Proceedings.     1912. 
Bostwick,  Arthur  Elmore.     Library  and  School :  The  Relationship  between 

the  Library  and  the  Public  Schools.     H.  W.  Wilson,  White  Plains. 

New  York,  1914. 
Elmendorf,   Mrs.   H.   L.     Buffalo's  System  of  Public   School  and   Public 

Library   Cooperation.     A   paper  prepared   for   the   New   York   State 

Teachers'  Association,   191 1.     Buffalo,   191 2. 
Hall,  M.  E.     Vocational  Guidance  through  the  Library.     American  Library 

Association,  1914. 
Ranck,    Samuel    H.     Library    Work    in    Vocational    Guidance.     Library 

Journal,  September,  1914. 
Ranck,  Samuel  H.     The  Library  and  the  School  in  Grand  Rapids.     Library 

Journal,  April,  1907. 
Wood,  Harriet  A.     The  Administration  of  High  School  Libraries  as  Branches 

of  Public  Libraries.     Library  Journal,  September,  1914. 
Wright,  Purd  B.     High  School  Branches  in  Kansas  City.     Library  Journal, 

September,  1914. 
Package  Libraries  for  the  Study  of  Civics.     Chicago  Public  Library  Book 

Bulletin.     December,  1914. 

(Publicity  and  Propaganda) 

Bostwick,  Arthur  Elmore.     The  Public  Library,  the  Public  School,  and 

the    Social     Center    Movement.     National    Education    Association. 

Proceedings.     191 2. 
Bostwick,  Arthur  Elmore.     The    Social  Work  of    the  St.    Louis    Public 

Library.     Library  Journal,  September,  1911. 
Isom,   Mary   Frances.     The  Library  a   Civic   Center.     Public    Libraries, 

March,  19 14. 

CHAPTER   XIV 

Social  Centers 
(General) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Social  Center.     Appleton,  New  York.     1913. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant.     Russell  Sage 
Foundation  Publications.     Survey  Associates,  New  York.     1910. 


472  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

University  of  Wisconsin :  Bureau  of  Civic  and  Social  Center  Develspment, 

Madison,    Wisconsin.     Bulletins. 
City  School  as  a  Community  Center.     Tenth  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.     Edited  by  the  secretary,  S.  Ches- 
ter Parker,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois.     191 1. 
Hanmer,  Lee    F.,  and   Knight,  Howard   R.     Sources  of  Information   on 
Recreation.     Russell  Sage   Foundation:    Department    of  Recreation. 
No.  Rec.  136. 
Cleland,    Ethel.     Social   Centers.     National  Municipal  Review,   January, 

1914. 
Regulating  the  Use  of  Public  School  Buildings  and  Grounds  in  the  District 
of  Columbia.     United  States  Senate  Report  No.  391.     March  30,  1914. 
Hanmer,  Lee  F.     The  Schoolhouse  Evening  Center.     National  Education 

Association.  Proceedings.  1914. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.  Social  Center  Development  to  Date  and  the 
Schoolhouse  as  a  Recreation  Center.  Addresses  before  the  first 
National  Conference  on  Civic  and  Social  Center  Development  at  Madi- 
son, Wisconsin.  October  26,  27,  1911.  Extension  Division.  Gen- 
eral Information  and  Welfare  Bulletin.  University  of  Wisconsin, 
1912. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Unused  Recreational  Resources  of  the  Average 

Community.     Russell  Sage  Foundation.     Rec.  Ser.  No.  104.     1914. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Social  Center  Features  in  New  Elementary  School 
Architecture  and  the  Plants  of  Sixteen  Socialized  Schools.     Russell 
Sage   Foundation:    Department  of   Child   Hygiene.     Pamphlet   No. 
120.     1912. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Community-Used  School.     Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion.    Rec.  Ser.  No.  83. 
Perry,    Clarence   Arthur.     How   to   Start   Social   Centers.     Russell   Sage 

Foundation.     Pamphlet  No.  Rec.  125. 
Perry,   Clarence  Arthur.     Survey  of   School   Social   Centers.     Season  of 
1911-12.     Russell    Sage    Foundation:     Department    of    Recreation. 
No.  R.  123. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Social  Centers  of  1912-13-     Russell  Sage  Foun- 
dation :   Department  of  Recreation.     Pamphlet  No.  R  135. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     How  the  Social  Center  Promotes  Reform  Move- 
ments.    Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1913.     Pamphlet  No.  R  131. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     Real  Snag  m  Social  Center  Extension.     Russell 

Sage  Foundation,  1914.     Rec.  Ser.  No.  137. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     High  School  as  a  Social  Center.     Russell  Sage 

Foundation,  1914.     Rec.  Ser.  No.  138. 
Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.     The  School  as  a  Factor  in  Neighborhood  Develop- 
ment.    Russell  Sage  Foundation:    Department  of  Recreation.     No. 
Rec.  142. 
Grand  Rapids  Social  Centers.     Special  Features  in  City  School  Systems. 

Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.     Washington,  1913. 
Marquis,  Eva  M.     The  Social  Center  in  Kansas  City.     Report  of  the  Board 
of  Public  Welfare,  Kansas  City,  Missouri.     1913-1914.     Also  Parent- 
Teachers'  Associations. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  473 

{Free  Lectures) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Social  Center.     Appleton,  New  York.     1913. 

Home,  Charles  F.  Twenty-five  Years  of  Free  Lectures.  The  Outlook, 
May  23,  1914. 

Hoyem,  Oliver.  Adult  Education  in  New  York  City.  National  Munic- 
ipal Review,  October,  1913. 

(Chicago  School  Extension) 

Chicago   School   of   Civics   and   Philanthropy:     Extension   Department. 

Publications. 
Board  of  Education,  City  of  Chicago.     Annual  Reports. 

(Rochester  Social  Centers) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Social  Center.     Appleton,  New  York.     1913. 

Weet,  Herbert  S.  Citizenship  and  the  Evening  Use  of  School  Buildings. 
Unity,  February  9,  191 1.  Reprinted  from  the  Common  Good,  Rochester, 
New  York. 

Childs,  Harriet  Lusk.  Rochester  Social  Centers.  American  City,  July, 
1911. 

Extension  Division  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin:  General  Information 
and  Welfare.  Lessons  Learned  in  Rochester  with  reference  to  Civic 
and  Social  Center  Development.  Bulletin  No.  464.  Published  by 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wisconsin.     November,  191 1. 

(Art  Centers) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Social  Center.     Appleton,  New  York.     1913. 
Johnston,  Ella  Bond.     Richmond,  Indiana.     Chapter  on  "  Art  Center  "  in 

The  Modern  High  School :  Its  Administration  and  Extension.     Scrib- 

ner's,  New  York.     1914. 
An  Art  Gallery  in  a  School.     The  Outlook,  January  3,  1914.     Editorial. 
Art  and  the  Public  Schools.     The  Outlook,  January  10,  1914.     Editorial. 

(Motion  Picture  Theaters) 

Holliday,  Carl.    The  Motion  Picture  Teacher.     The  World's  Work,  May, 

1913- 
National  Board  of  Censorship  of  Motion  Pictures.     The  Policy  and  Stand- 
ards of  the  National  Board  of  Censorship  of  Motion  Pictures.     Revised 
May,  1914. 

(Citizenship  Centers) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Social  Center.     Appleton,  New  York.     1913. 
Pink,  Louis  Heaton.     Polling  Places  in  the  Schools.     National  Municipal 

Review,  July,  19 13. 
Instruction  in  Citizenship.     Municipal  Record  (San  Francisco),  December 

10,  1914. 


474  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Social  Center  Pageant :   The  Schoolhouse  as  a  Polling  Place  in  Wisconsin. 

The  Survey,  November  14,  1914. 
Beck,    Carl.     Where    Shall     the    Citizens    of     New    York    Vote?     The 

Survey,  April  11,  1914. 
Schoolhouses  as  Polling  Places.     American  City,  June,  1915. 
Ward,  E.  J.     The  Schoolhouse  as  the  Polling  Place.     Bulletin  of  the  Bureau 

of  Education.     Washington,  1915. 

(Civic  Secretaries) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Greatest  OflSce  in  Any  Community.     La  Follette's, 

September  5,  1914. 
Democracy  in  Local  Matters.     Municipal  Record  (San  Francisco),  December 

10,  1914. 
Taylor,  Graham.     A  Community  Secretary.     National  Municipal  Review, 

April,  1915. 

(New  York's  Recreation  Centers) 

Ward,  Edward  J.     The  Social  Center.     Appleton,  New  York.     1913. 

Martin,  John.  School  Progress  in  New  York  City.  National  Municipal 
Review,  July,  1913. 

Self-Government  in  Public  Recreation.  (From  a  memorandum  on  recrea- 
tion addressed  to  the  New  York  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment.) 
The  Survey,  August  23,  1913. 

Notes  on  Community  Center  Work  in  School  Buildings.  Issued  by  the 
Social  Center  Committee  of  the  People's  Institute,  New  York.  Pam- 
phlet Number  One  :  Bird's- Eye  View ;  Recreation  Centers  and  Com- 
munity Centers.     19 15. 

Notes  on  Community  Center  Work  in  School  Buildings.  Issued  by  the 
Social  Center  Committee  of  the  People's  Institute,  New  York.  Pam- 
phlet Number  Two :   Self-Government  and  Self-Support.     1915. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Parks  and  Boulevards 
(General) 

Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.  The  Development  of  Park  Systems  in  Ameri- 
can Cities.     The  Annals,  March,  1905. 

Public  Recreation  Facilities.     The  Annals,  March,  1910. 

Nolen,  John.  The  Parks  and  Recreation  Facilities  in  the  United  States. 
The  Annals,  March,  1910. 

Kelsey,  Frederick  Wallace.  The  First  County  Park  System :  A  Complete 
History  of  the  Inception  and  Development  of  the  Essex  County  Parks 
of  New  Jersey.     J.  S.  Ogilvic  Publishing  Co.,  New  York.     1905. 

Kelsey,  Frederick  W.  Park  System  of  Essex  County,  New  Jersey.  The 
Annals,  March,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  475 

Muirheid,  Walter  G.     The  Park  System  of  Hudson  County,  New  Jersey. 

The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.     Proposed  Philadelphia  Parkways.     Municipal 

Journal  and  Engineer,  May,  1903. 
Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.     City  Planning  and  Philadelphia  Parks.      The 

Annals,  March,  19 10. 
Board  of  Park  Commissioners,  Spokane,  Wash.     Report.     1891-1913. 
Kessler,  George  E.     How  the  Parks  and  Boulevards  of  Kansas  City  are 

Financed.     American  City,  June,  1913. 
The  Park  and  Boulevard  System  of  Kansas  City.     Published  by  the  Board 

of  Park  Commissioners,  19 14. 
Mountain  Park  System  (Denver).     The  City  of  Denver,  July  11,  1914. 
President  Signs  Bills  to  Increase  Denver's  Mountain  Parks.     The  City  of 

Denver,  September  12,  1914. 
Brown,  Charles  N.     The  Park  Movement  in  Madison,  Wisconsin.     The 

Annals,  March,  1910. 
Clark,  Will  H.     How  Oklahoma  City  Secured  Its  Park  and  Boulevard 

System.     American  City,  December,  1910. 
Park  and  Cemetery.     Monthly.     Chicago. 

{Chicago  Parks  and  Boulevards) 

Perkins,  Dwight  Heald,  comp.  Report  of  the  Special  Park  Commission  to 
the  City  Council  of  Chicago  on  the  subject  of  a  Metropolitan  Park 
System.     1904. 

South  Park  Commissioners,  Chicago.     Annual  Reports. 

West  Chicago  Park  Commissioners.     Annual  Reports. 

Lincoln  Park  Commissioners.     Annual  Reports. 

Special  Park  Commissioners.     Annual  Reports. 

{Baltimore) 

Scott,  Stuart  Stevens.  Baltimore,  the  City  of  Parks.  Municipal  En- 
gineering, March,  1913. 

Making  the  Parks  of  Great  Practical  Service  to  the  Public.  Municipal 
Journal  (Baltimore),  May  15,  19 14. 

{Washington) 

The  Improvement  of  the  Park  System  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  I. 
Report  of  the  Senate  Committee  on  the  District  of  Columbia.  II. 
Report  of  the  Park  Commission.  Edited  by  Charles  Moore.  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington.     1902. 

{Boston) 

Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.  The  Development  of  Park  Systems  in  Ameri- 
can Cities.     The  Annals,  March,  1905. 

Boston's  Parkways.     Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  August  5,  1908. 

de  las  Casas,  William  B.  The  Boston  Metropolitan  Park  System.  The 
Annals,  March,  iqio. 

Metropolitan  Park  Commissioners.     Annual  Reports. 


476  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

{Recreation  in  the  Parks) 

Merkel,  Herman  A.     The  New  York  Idea  of  a  Zoological  Park.      American 

City,  October,  191 3. 
Seton-Thompson,   Ernest.     The  National  Zoo  at  Washington.     Century, 

March  and  May,  1900. 
Nolen,  John.     The  Parks  and  Recreation  Facilities  in  the   United  States. 

The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Groot,  E.  B.  de.     Recreation  Facilities  in  Public  Parks.     American  City, 

January,  1914. 

{Municipal  Forestry) 

Solotaroff,  William.  Shade  Trees  in  Towns  and  Cities.  Wiley,  New  York. 
1911. 

Bostwick,  Andrew  Linn.  Municipal  Tree  Planting  by  Special  Assessment. 
Laws  and  Practices  in  Several  States  and  Cities.  Municipal  Journal, 
October  29,  1914. 

Bannwart,  Carl.  The  Movement  for  City  Street  Trees  —  A  Survey,  Na- 
tional Municipal  Review,  April,  1915. 

The  Newark  Shade  Tree  Commission.  The  Newarker,  published  by  the 
Free  Public  Library  of  Newark,  New  Jersey.     June,  1914. 

Parker,  George  A.  Street  Tree  Inventory.  Mujiicipal  Journal  and  Engi- 
neer, April  3,  1907. 

Tree  Culture  in  New  York.     Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  April  3,  1907. 

Massachusetts  State  Forester.    Reports. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Public  Recreation 
{General) 

Public  Recreation  Facilities.     The  Annals,  March,  1910. 

Nolen,  John.     The  Parks  and  Recreation  Facilities  in  the  United  States. 

The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Braucher,  Howard  S.     Play  and  Social  Progress.     The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Curtis,  Henry  S.     Public  Provision  and  Responsibility  for  Playgrounds. 

The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Jerome,  Mrs.  Amalie  Hofer.    The  Playground  as  a  Social  Center.     The 

Annals,  March,  1910. 
Robinson,  Charles  Mulford.     Educational    Value    of    Public    Recreation 

Facilities.     The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Von    Borosini,    Victor.     Our   Recreation    Facilities   and    the   Immigrant. 

The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
Mallery,  Otto  T.     The  Social  Significance  of  Play.     The  Annals,  March, 

1910. 
Kennard,  Beulah.     The  Playground  for  Children  at  Home.     The  Annals, 

March,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  477 

Marsh,  Benjamin  C.  The  Unused  Assets  of  our  Public  Recreation  Facili- 
ties.    The  Annals,  March,  1910. 

Addams,  Jane.  Recreation  as  a  Public  Function  in  Urban  Communities. 
The  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  March,  191 2. 

Collier,  John.  City  Planning  and  the  Problem  of  Recreation.  The  Annals, 
January,  1914. 

Addams,  Jane.  The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets.  Macmillan, 
New  York.     1909. 

Edwards,  Richard  Henry.  Public  Recreation.  Extension  Division, 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

Curtis,  Henry  S.  Play  and  Recreation  for  the  Open  Country.  Ginn, 
Boston.     1914. 

Perry,  Clarence  A.  Unused  Recreational  Resources  of  the  Average  Com- 
munity.    Russell  Sage  Foundation.     Rec.  Ser.  No.  104. 

Hanmer,  Lee  F.,  and  Knight,  Howard  R.  Sources  of  Information  on 
Recreation.  Russell  Sage  Foundation :  Department  of  Recreation 
No.  Rec.  136. 

Lee,  Joseph.  Constructive  and  Preventive  Philanthropy.  New  York. 
1902. 

Lee,  Joseph.     Play  in  Education.     New  York.     1915. 

The  Playground.  Published  by  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Associa- 
tion of  America,  New  York  City. 

Playground  Association  of  America.     Proceedings.     1907  to  date. 

{The  Playground  Movement) 

A  Brief  History  of  the  Playground  Movement  in  America.     The  Playground, 

1915- 

Lee,  Joseph.  Playground  Committee  (Massachusetts  Playground  Refer- 
endum). Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Civic  League  for  the 
year  ending  October  31,  1910. 

Playground  Law  of  191 2  Apphcable  to  Towns  of  over  5000  Population. 
(Massachusetts)  Chapter  223. 

Mero,  Everett  B.     American  Playgrounds.     3d  ed.     New  York,  1909. 

Perry,  Clarence  Arthur.  Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant.  Russell  Sage 
Foundation.     Survey  Associates,  New  York.     191 1. 

{Ntw  York  Playgroutuls) 

Beck,  Carl.     Play  Zones  in  New  York  Streets.     The  Survey,  September  12, 

1914. 
Stover,   Charles  B.     Seward  Park  Playground.     Municipal  Journal  and 

Engineer,  May,  1903. 

{Chicago  Playgrounds) 

Taylor,  Graham  Romeyn.     Recreation  Developments  in  Chicago  Parks. 

The  Annals,  March,  1910. 
South  Park  Commissioners,  Chicago,     .\nnual  Reports. 
West  Chicago  Park  Commissioners.     Annual  Reports. 


478  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lincoln  Park  Commissioners.  Annual  Reports. 
Special  Park  Commissioners.  Annual  Reports. 
Conserving  Chicago's  Great  Play  Estate.     The  Survey,  June  12,  1915. 

{Los  Angeles  Playgrounds) 

Stoddart,  Bessie  D.     Recreative  Centers  of  Los  Angeles,  California.     The 

Annals,  March,  1910. 
Board  of  Playground  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  Los  Angeles.     Reports. 

(Public  Baths) 

Erler,  Richard  W.  Newark's  New  Bath  House.  Municipal  Journal, 
January  29,  1914. 

Hanmer,  Lee  F.,  and  Knight,  Howard  R.  Sources  of  Information  on  Recre- 
ation. Russell  Sage  Foundation :  Department  of  Recreation.  No. 
Rec.  136. 

Gerhard,  William  Paul.  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses.  Wiley,  New 
York.     1908. 

BeadenkoEf,  T.  M.     Portable  Shower  Baths.     The  Survey,  July  31,  1909, 

Free  Public  Bath  Commission  of  the  City  of  Baltimore.     Annual  Reports. 

Gerhard,  WUliam  Paul.  Public  Bath  Houses  and  Swimming  Pools.  Ameri- 
can City  Pamphlet  No.  120. 

(Boston  Public  Baths) 

Woodbury,   William   R.,   M.D.     Boston's   Municipal   Gymnasiums.     The 

Commons,  October,  1904. 
Cole,  William  I.     Free  Municipal  Baths  in  Boston.     Department  of  Baths, 

Boston,  Massachusetts. 
Department  of  Parks  and  Recreation,   Boston,   Massachusetts.     Annual 

Reports. 
Metropolitan  Park  Commission,  Boston,  Massachusetts.     Annual  Reports. 

(New  York  Public  Baths) 

New  York  City.  Health  Department.  Public  Baths  in  New  York  City, 
with  special  reference  to  river  bathing.     Monthly  Bulletin,  May,  19 14. 

Armstrong,  Donald  B.,  M.D.  Public  Bath  Advertising  Campaign.  The 
Survey,  February  21,  1914. 

Purifying  Water  for  City  Bathing  Pools.     The  Survey,  May  9,  1914. 

New  York  City's  Public  Baths.     Municipal  Journal,  May  20,  1915. 

(Vacation  Camps) 

Board  of  Playground  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  Los  Angeles.     Report 

for  the  years  1913-1914. 
Municipal  Vacation  Camp  for  Los  Angeles  in  San  Bernardino  Mountains. 

The  Survey,  May  9,  1914. 
A  City  that  has  a  Vacation  Camp.     La  Follette's,  July  11,  1914. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  479 

(Municipal  Dancing) 

Chicago,  Illinois.     Municipal  Reference  Library.     Municipal  Dance  Halls. 

Municipal  Reference  Bulletin  No.  2.     March,  1914. 
Cleveland,   Ohio.     Dance   Hall    Inspector.     Report   of   regulation   of   the 

city's  dance  halls  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1913. 
Rex,    Frederick.     Municipal    Dance   Halls.     National   Municipal  Review, 

July,  1915. 
The  Street  as  a  Dance  Hall.     American  City,  November,  1914.     Items  of 

Municipal  and  Civic  Progress. 

{Municipal  Music) 

Free  Organ  Recitals.     Pittsburgh  Chronicle  Telegraph,  February  3,  1914. 
Simpson,  S.  H.  J.     Municipal  Music  in  New  York.     The  Survey,  April  19, 

1913- 
Earhart,  Will.     Music  in  the  Public  Schools.     Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education.     No.  2i3-    Washington.    1914. 

{Municipal  Auditoriums) 

Financial  Statistics  of  Cities:   191 1.     Depar^^ment  of  Commerce:   Bureau 

of  the  Census. 
San  Francisco's  Municipal  Auditorium.     San  Francisco  Chronicle,  January 

16,  1915. 
A  Municipal  Theater  and  Concert  Hall.     American  City,  May,  1910. 

{Municipal  Theaters) 

Denver,  Colorado,  Public  Library.     References  on  Municipal  Theaters. 
A  Municipal  Theater  in  Oklahoma.     Kansas  City  Times,  December   12, 

1914. 
Municipal  Movie  on  the  Move.     The  Survey,  October  31,  1914. 
Town  That  Owns  Its  Own  Theater.     The  Craftsman,  January,   1913. 
A  Municipal  Theater.     The  Outlook,  December  21,  1912. 
America's  First  Municipal  Theater :    Northampton's  Experiment.     Boston 

Transcript,  October  19,  191 2. 
Pierce,  L.  France.     The  First  Municipal  Theater  in  America.     The  World 

To-day,  June,  1905. 
Municipal  Theaters  in  Wisconsin.     National  Municipal  Review,  January, 

1914.     Notes  and  Events. 

{Festivals  and  Pageants) 

MacKaye,  Percy.     The  Civic  Theater  in  Relation  to  the  Redemption  of 

Leisure.     Kennerley,    New    York.     191 2. 
Chubb,  Percival,  and  Associates.     Festivals  and  Plays.     Harper,  New  York. 

1912. 
Davol,  Ralph.     A  Handbook  on  American  Pageantry.     Davol  Publishing 

Co.,  Taunton,  Mass.     1914. 


48o  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Hamner,  Lee  F.,  and  Knight,  Howard  R.  Sources  of  Information  on  Rec- 
reation. Russell  Sage  Foundation :  Department  of  Recreation. 
No.  Rec.  136. 

MacKaye,  Percy.  St.  Louis :  A  Civic  Masque.  Doubleday,  New  York. 
1914. 

The  Civic  Pageant  of  Arlington,  Massachusetts.  To  Commemorate  the 
Dedication  of  the  Town  Hall.  Written  and  planned  by  Mrs.  Cyrus 
Edwin  Dallin.     Arlington,  Massachusetts.     1913. 

The  Easter  Rubidoux  Pilgrimage.     The  Outlook,  April  21,  1915. 

The  Night  Before  Christmas  in  the  City  Square.     The  Survey,  December 

5,  1914- 

Hanmer,  Lee  F.  Independence  Day  Legislation  and  Celebration  Sugges- 
tions. Russell  Sage  Foundation :  Department  of  Recreation.  No. 
Rec.  129. 

American  Pageant  Association.     Bulletins. 

Contain  lists  of  the  pageants,  festivals,  and  masques  that  are  given 
each  year,  and  also  furnish  advance  notices  of  such  performances. 
The  Association  publishes  descriptive  bulletins  for  the  use  of  the  gen- 
eral public,  mainly  educational  in  character,  as  well  as  detailed  informa- 
tion concerning  the  production  of  performances  for  the  use  of  those  who 
are  actively  engaged  in  the  work. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

City  Planning 
{GeneraX) 

United  States.    Library  of  Congress.     Division  of  Bibliography.     Check 

List  of  References  on  City  Planning.     1912. 
New  York  City.     Public  Library.     Select  list  of  works  relating  to  city 

planning  and  allied  topics.     19 13. 
Boston.     Public    Library.     City    and    town    planning    bibliography.     In 

Bulletin,  3d  series,  June,  1910. 
New  York  School  of  Philanthropy.     Social  aspects  of  town  planning.     In 

Public  Sociological  Library  Bulletin,  No.  5,  March,  1912.     New  York, 

1912. 
Nolen,  John.     Town-Planning  Library.     The  Annals,  January,  1914. 
Marsh,  B.  C,  and  Ford,  G.  B.     Introduction  to  City  Planning :    Democ- 
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Handbook  of  City  Planning,  edited  by  John  Nolen.    National  Municipal 

League  Series.     Philadelphia,  1915. 
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Bennett,  E.  H.  Planning  for  Distribution  of  Industries.  The  Annals, 
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Pratt,  Edward  Ewing.  Industrial  Causes  of  Congestion  of  Population  in 
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{Communication) 

Robinson,  C.  M     Street  Plan  of  a  City's  Business  District.    Architectural 

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New  York.     191 1. 
21 


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Haldeman,  B.  Antrim.    The  Street  Layout.     The  Annals,  January,  1914. 

Robinson,  Charles  Mulford.  The  Sociology  of  a  Street  Layout.  The 
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Shirley,  Joseph  \V.  The  Value  of  a  Topographical  Survey  in  Planning  a 
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Blachly,  Frederick  F.  The  Streets  of  New  York  City.  National  Mu- 
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Lewis,  N.  P.,  and  others.  Circulation  of  Passengers  and  Freight  in  its 
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Maltbie,  M.  R.  Transportation  and  City  Planning.  Fifth  National 
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{City  Halls) 

Blake,  W.  B.  A  City  With  a  $2,000,000  Trade-Mark.  Collier's,  April  4, 
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Pell  and  Corbett,  Architects.  Municipal  Buildings.  Springfield,  Massa- 
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Bake  well  and  Brown,  Architects.  The  New  City  Hall  of  San  Francisco. 
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Bostwick,  Arthur  Elsmore.     The    American  Public    Library.     Appleton, 

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{Schoolhouses) 

Burrage,  Severance,  and  Bailey,  Henry  Turner.     School  Sanitation  and 

Decoration.     Heath,  Boston.     1899. 
Dresslar,  F.  B.     American  School  Houses.     Washington,  1911. 
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Johnston,  Charles  Hughes,  ed.  The  Modern  High  School:  Its  Adminis- 
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Perkins,  Dwight  Heald.  The  Relation  of  Schoolhouse  Architecture  to  the 
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Perry,  Clarence  A.  Social  Center  Features  in  New  Elementary  School  Archi- 
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Keene,  Charles  H.  The  Effect  of  Conditions  of  Schoolroom  Heating  and 
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Hull,  W.  R.  New  Features  in  a  Manual  Arts  School.  Manual  Training, 
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Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  School  Buildings.  In  the  Annual  Report 
of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  the  year  1913. 

Snyder,  C.  J.  B.  The  Washington  Irving  High  School.  Architecture  and 
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Ittner,  William  B.  School  Buildings  of  Saint  Louis,  Missouri.  American 
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Briggs,  W.  R.     Modern  American  School  Buildings.     New  York,  1909. 

Wheelwright,  E.  M.     School  Architecture.     Boston,  1901. 

{Civic  Centers) 

Warner,  John  De  Witt.     Civic  Centers.     Municipal  AJfairs,  March,  1902. 

Hurd,  Richard  M.  The  Structure  of  Cities.  Municipal  A_ffairs,  March, 
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Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.  The  Development  of  Park  Systems  in  American 
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San  Francisco's  Civic  Center.     San  Francisco  Chronicle,  January  16,  1915. 

Development  and  Present  Status  of  City  Planning  in  New  York  City. 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  City  Plan  of  the  Board  of  Estimate 
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Lord,  George  Bate.  The  Civic  Center  of  Des  Moines.  Municipal  En- 
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{Residential  Areas) 

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Shurtlefif,  Flavel,  in  collaboration  with  Frederick  Law  Olmsted.  Carry- 
ing Out  the  City  Plan.  Russell  Sage  Foundation  Publications.  Survey 
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{Billboards) 

Shurtleff,  Flavel,  in  collaboration  with  Frederick  Law  Olmsted.  Carry- 
ing Out  the  City  Plan.  Russell  Sage  Foundation  Publications.  Sur- 
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Billboard  Advertising  in  St.  Louis.     The  Civic  League  of  St.  Louis,  1910. 

Woodruff,  Clinton  Rogers,  ed.  The  Billboard  Nuisance.  American  Civic 
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Regulation  of  Billboards  in  Denver.  National  Municipal  Review,  October, 
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484  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Millard,  Everett  L.  Victory  Against  Billboards  in  Illinois.  The  Survey, 
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Cleveland.  An  ordinance  to  regulate  the  construction,  location  and  main- 
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1914- 
Denver,    Colorado.     An   ordinance   regulating   the   construction,   erection 

and  maintenance  of  billboards  and  other  signs  and  structures  in  the 

City  of  Denver.     April  16,  1914. 
Report  of  The  Mayor's  Billboard  Advertising  Commission  of  the  City  of 

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{Recreation) 

Collier,  John.  City  Planning  and  the  Problem  of  Recreation.  The  Annals, 
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{Typical  City  Plans) 

Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.  The  Development  of  Park  Systems  in  Ameri- 
can Cities.     The  Annals,  March,  1905. 

Taft,  William  Howard.  Washington :  Its  Beginning,  Its  Growth,  and  Its 
Future.     Tlie  National  Geographic  Magazine,  March,  1915. 

Development  and  Present  Status  of  City  Planning  in  New  York  City. 
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National  Conference  on  City  Planning.     Proceedings.     1909  to  date. 

{Municipal  Art  Commissions) 

Conference  of  Members  of  Art  Commissions.  Art  Comniissions ;  city  and 
state;  suggestions  as  to  their  organization  and  scope.  Report  of  a 
committee  appointed  at  the  conference  of  members  of  art  commissions, 
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Art  Commission  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Laws  relating  to  art  commis- 
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Hanmer,  Lee  F.,  and  Knight,  Howard  R.  Sources  of  Information  on 
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of  Lowell,  Mass.     New  York,  1912 

{City  Plan  Commissions) 

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ShurtlefiF,  Flavel.     City-Planning  Legislation.     The  Annals,  January,  1914. 

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486  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Municipal  Ownership 
(General) 

National  Convention  upon  Municipal  Operation  and  Public  Franchises. 
Proceedings.     Municipal  Affairs,  1902-1903. 

Bemis,  Edward  W.,  ed.  Municipal  Monopolies.  Crowell,  New  York. 
4th  ed.     1904. 

Control  of  Municipal  Public  Servdce  Corporations.  The  Annals,  May, 
1908.     Contains  fourteen  papers  on  various  phases  of  the  subject. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  Municipal  Franchises.  2  vols.  Engineering 
News   New  York.     191 2. 

King,  Clyde  Lyndon,  ed.  Regulation  of  Municipal  Utilities.  Appleton, 
New  York.     191 2. 

King,  Clyde  Lyndon  ed.  Municipal  Ownership  in  California  through  PubUc 
Utility  Districts.  National  Municipal  Review,  January,  19 14.  Notes 
and  Events. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  Effects  of  State  Regulation  upon  the  Municipal 
Ownership  Movement.     The  Annals,  May,  19 14. 

Baker,  Newton    D.     Municipal  Ownership.     The  Annals,    January,  1915. 

Rosecrantz,  Clarke  M.  Some  Limitations  and  Objections  to  Municipal 
Ownership.     The  Annals,  January,  19 15. 

Crosser,  Robert.  Why  I  Believe  in  Municipal  Ownership.  The  Annals, 
January,  1915. 

Baskerville,  G.  B.,  Jr.  A  Combination  of  Municipal  and  Privately  Owned 
Utilities.     Reprinted  irom  American  City.     No.  123. 

Cooley,  Richard  W.  Handbook  on  the  Law  of  Municipal  Corporations. 
West,  St.  Paul. 

Howe,  Frederic  C.  The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy.  Scribner's,  New 
York.     1905. 

Detroit,  Michigan,  Public  Library.  Municipal  Ownership;  selected 
bibliography.     19 14. 

Morgan,  Joy  E.,  and  Bullock,  Edna  D.,  comp.  Selected  Articles  on  Mu- 
nicipal Ownership.     H.  W.  Wilson,  White  Plains.     1914. 

Francisco,  M.  J.  Municipal  Ownership :  Its  Fallacy,  with  legal  and  edi- 
torial opinions,  tables  and  cost  of  light  as  furnished  by  private  com- 
panies and  municipal  plants.     4th  ed.     Rutland  (Vt.),  1895. 

Porter,  Robert  P.  The  Dangers  of  Municipal  Ownership.  Century,  New 
York.     1907. 

Concerning  Municipal  Ownership.  The  Municipal  Ownership  Publishing 
Bureau,  New  York.     March,  1906  to  date. 

National  Civic  Association.  Commission  on  Public  Ownership  and  Opera- 
tion.    Reports.     1907  to  date. 

Pond,  Oscar  L.  A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Public  Utilities  Operating  in 
Cities  and  Towns.     Bobbs-Merrill,  Indianapolis.     1913. 

(Street  Railways) 

United  States  Library  of  Congress.  Division  of  Bibliography.  Select 
list  of  references  on  municipal  ownership  and  operation  of  street  rail- 
ways.    Washington,  19 12. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  487 

Bemis,  Edward  W.     Detroit's  Efforts  to  Own  Her  Street  Railways.     Mu- 
nicipal A  fairs,  September,  1899. 
Myers,  Gustavus.     History  of  Public  Franchises  in  New  York  City  :  Street 

Railways  and  Rapid  Transit.     Municipal  AJfairs,  March,  1900. 
Gaynor,   William   J.     New   York's   Subway   Policy.     Municipal    Affairs, 

June,  1901. 
Shepard,    Edward    M.     City   Owning   and    Leasing.     Municipal   Affairs, 

Winter,  1902-1903. 
Municipal  Ownership  and   Municipal   Franchises.      The  Annals,  January, 

1906. 
Wright,  Henry  C.     Development  of  Transit  Control  in  New  York  City. 

The  Annals,  May,  1908. 
Beal,    B.    L.     Boston    Municipal    Subway.     Municipal   Affairs,    March, 

1900. 
Winslow,    Willard.     Boston's     New    Subway.     Municipal    Affairs,  June, 

1901. 
Brandeis,  Louis  D.    The  Experience  of  Massachusetts  in  Street  Railways. 

Municipal  Affairs,  Winter,  1902-1903. 
Municipal  Ownership  and   Municipal  Franchises.     The  Annals,    January, 

1906. 

{Lighting) 

,,     .  .     ,  ^,    ^  .    T  •  L.^-       f  Pro    .     .     .     Victor  Rosewater. 
Municipal  Electric  Lighting  |  ^^^        _         j^^^^  gj^^^  ^^^^^^^ 

Municipal  Affairs,  Winter,  1902-1903. 

,,     .  .     ,  ^      T  •  Li.-       /  Pro    .     .     .     Alton  D.  Adams. 
Municipal  Gas  Lighting  I  ^^^  _  Walter  S.  Allen. 

Municipal  Affairs,  Winter,  1 902-1 903. 

Municipal  Electric  Lighting  in  Chicago  .  .  .  Editorial 
Accountants'  Report  .  .  .  Haskins  and  Sells. 
Economic  and  Social  Factors  .  .  .  John  R.  Commons. 
Municipal  Affairs,  March,  1902. 

Richards,  J.  L.     The  Boston  Consolidated  Gas  Company:    Its  Relation 

to   the   Public,   Its    Employees,   and    Investors.     The  Annals,    May, 

1908. 
Palmer,  Ray.     Municipal  Lighting    Rates.     The  Annals,   January,  1915. 
Koiner,   C.   Wellington.     Pasadena's  Municipal  Light  and  Power  Plant. 

The  Annals,  January,  191 5. 
Winchester,  Albert  E.     South  Norwalk's  Municipal  Electric  Works.     The 

Annals,  January,  191 5. 

{Water  Works) 

Myers,  Gustavus.     History  of  Public  Franchises  in  New  York  City :  Water 

Supply.     Municipal  Affairs,  March,  1900. 
Baker,  M.  N.     Water  Supply  of  Greater  New  York.     Municipal  Affairs, 

September,  1900. 


488  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Baker,  M.  N.  Municipal  Ownership  and  Operation  of  Water  Works, 
The   Annals,  January,  1915. 

Burgess,  Philip.  Points  of  Difference  in  Water  Works  Franchises.  Re- 
printed from  American  City.     No.  129. 

{Municipal  Heating  Plants) 

Talbot,  C.  H.  Municipal  Heating  Plants.  National  Municipal  Review, 
April,  1914.     Notes  and  Events. 

Hopwood,  E.  C.  The  Baker  Administration  of  Cleveland.  National  Mu- 
nicipal Review,  July,   1913. 

Ballard,  Frederick  W.  District  Steam  Heating  with  High  Pressure  Steam. 
Journal  of  the  Ohio  Society  of  Mechanical  Electrical  and  Steam  En- 
gineers.    Vol.  5,  No.  2. 

(Municipal  Garages) 

How  the  City  Handles  Its  Automobiles.     Municipal  Journal  (Baltimore), 

March  5,  1915. 
Los  Angeles  a  Leader  in  Municipal  Power  Wagons :  Los  Angeles  Municipal 

Garage.     The  Power  Wagon,  June  i,  1914. 

(General  Municipal  Trading) 

Financial  Statistics  of   Cities:   1911.     Department  of  Commerce :    Bureau 

of  the  Census.     Special  Report. 
Municipal  Oil  Pit  (Pasadena).     Final  Report  of  the  Mayor  to  the  City 

Council  of  Pasadena,  19 13. 
Municipal  Coal  and  Wood  Yard  (Denver).     Report  of  the  Social  Welfare 

Department,  City  and  County  of  Denver,  for  the  year  ending  Decem- 
ber 31,  1914. 
Wentworth,   Jeanie  W.     A  Report  on  Municipal  and   Government  Ice 

Plants  in  the  United  States  and  Other  Countries.     December  15,  1913- 
A  Municipal  Ice  Plant :  Municipal  and  Government  Ice  Plants.     Municipal 

Engineering,  May,  1914. 
Municipal  Asphalt  Plants.     Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  March  3, 

1909. 
Goodsell,  Daniel  B.     Municipal  Asphalt  Plant  of  Manhattan  Borough. 

Municipal  Journal,  March  5,  1914. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Municipal  Administration 
(General) 

Efficiency  in  City  Government.     The  Annals,  May,  191 2. 
Twenty-eight  articles  by  authorities,  grouped  under  the  following  gen- 
eral heads :  The  Need  for  Efficiency  in  Municipal  Government ;   Ef- 
ficiency Principles  Applied ;  Bureaus  of  Municipal  Research ;  Training 
for  Municipal  Efficiency. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  489 

National  Conferences  for  Good  City  Government.  Proceedings.  1894- 
1914  (inclusive).  Published  by  the  National  Municipal  League, 
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Fairlie,  John  A.  Municipal  Administration.  Macmillan,  New  York. 
1901. 

Parsons,  Frank.  The  City  for  the  People:  or  The  Municipalization  of 
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Steffens,  Lincoln.     The  Shame  of  the  Cities.     McClurt,  New  York.     1904. 

Steffens,  Lincoln.  The  Struggle  for  Self-Government.  McClure,  New 
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Steffens,  Lincoln.     Upbuilders.     Doubleday,  New  York.     1909. 

Deming,  Horace  E.  The  Government  of  American  Cities.  Putnam's, 
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Goodnow,  Frank  J.     Municipal  Government.     Century,  New  York.     1909. 

Fairlie,  John  A.  Essays  in  Municipal  Administration.  Macmillan,  New 
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Rowe,  Leo  S.  Problems  of  City  Government.  Appleton,  New  York. 
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Beard,  Charles  Austin.  American  City  Government :  A  Survey  of  Newer 
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Bruere,  Henry.     The  New  City  Government.     Appleton,  New  York.     1912. 

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Whitlock,  Brand.     Forty  Years  of  It.     Appleton,  New  York.     1914. 

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(Charters) 

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490  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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{Commission  Government) 

Hamilton,  John  J.  The  Dethronement  of  the  City  Boss.  Funk  and  Wag- 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY  49 1 

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Ryan,  Oswald.     Municipal  Freedom.     Doubleday,  New  York.     1915. 

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MacGregor,  Ford  H.  City  Government  by  Commission.  The  University 
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Problems  of  Commission  Government;  The  City-Manager  Plan; 
Results  of  Commission  Government  in  Typical  Cities. 

Thompson,  Carl  D.  The  Vital  Points  in  Charter  Making  from  a  Socialist 
Point  of  View.     National  Municipal  Review.     July,  1913. 

Beard,  Charles  Austin.  The  Loose-Leaf  Digest  of  Short  Ballot  Charters. 
The  Short  Ballot  Organization.     New  York,  191 1. 

The  Short  Ballot  Bulletin.  The  National  Short  Ballot  Organization. 
New  York,  New  York. 

{City  Manager) 

The  Coming  of  the  City  Manager  Plan.  A  report  of  the  National  Municipal 
League's  committee  on  the  commission  form  of  government  and  a 
supplement  to  its  report  that  appeared  in  the  National  Municipal 
Review    for    January,    191 2.     National    Municipal    Review,    January, 

1914-  ^      ^ 

Dayton's     Manager     Reports.     National     Municipal     Review,    October, 

1914. 

The  Report  of  the  City  of  Dayton,  January  i-June  30,  1914,  submitted  to 
the  city  commissioners  by  the  city  manager  August  i,  19 14.  Pub- 
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List  of  references  on  city  manager  plan.  Municipal  League  of  Los  Angeles, 
California.     Municipal  League  Bulletin.     June-July,   1914. 

The  City  Manager  Plan  in  Forty-five  Cities.     American  City,  June,  1915. 

Childs,  Richard  S.  The  Theory  of  the  New  Controlled  Executive  Plan. 
National  Municipal  Review,  January,  19 13. 

{Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall) 

The  Recall.     Municipal  AJfairs,  May,  1909.     Published  by  the  Municipal 

League  of  Los  Angeles. 
Oberholtzer,    Ellis   Paxson.     The  Referendum,   Initiative  and   Recall  in 

America.     Scribner's,  New  York.     191 1. 
United  States.     Library  of  Congress.     Division  of  Bibliography.     Select 

list  of  references  on  initiative,  referendum  and  recall.     Compiled  by 

H.  H.  B.  Meyer,  chief  bibliographer.     Washington,  191 1. 
The  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall.     The  Annals,  September,   191 2. 


492  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Eighteen  articles  grouped  under  the  following  general  heads :  Merits 
and  Limitations  of  the  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall ;  Provisions 
for  and  Results  Obtained  by  the  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall; 
The  Judicial  Recall. 

Gilbertson,  H.  S.  The  Recall  —  Its  Provisions  and  Significance.  The 
Annals,  September,  191 2. 

Catlett,  Fred  W.  The  Working  of  the  Recall  in  Seattle.  The  Annals, 
September,  191 2. 

Phelps,  E.  M.,  ed.  Selected  Articles  on  the  Initiative  and  Referendum. 
2d  and  enl.  ed.     H.  W.  Wilson,  White  Plains.     191 1. 

Munro,  William  Bennett.  The  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall.  Apple- 
ton,    New   York.     191 2. 

Wilcox,  Delos  Franklin.  Government  by  All  the  People.  Macmillan, 
New  York.     191 2. 

Taylor,  Charles  F.  Municipal  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall  in  Prac- 
tice.    National  Municipal  Review,  October,  1914. 

Equity.  The  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall  Department.  January, 
1915- 

(Preferential  Voting) 

Bacon,  Edwin  M.,  and  Wyman,  Morrill.  Direct  Elections  and  Law-Mak- 
ing by  Popular  Vote;  the  Initiative,  the  Referendum,  the  Recall, 
Commission  Government  for  Cities,  Preferential  Voting.  Houghton, 
Boston.     191 2. 

Johnson,  Lewis  Jerome.  The  Preferential  Ballot.  Senate  Doc.  985. 
Washington,  D.  C,  1915. 

Detroit,  Michigan,  Public  Library.  Preferential  voting.  Selected  bibliog- 
raphy.    19 14. 

Porter,  M.  P.  Preferential  Voting  and  the  Rule  of  the  Majority.  National 
Municipal  Review,  July,  1914. 

{Proportional  Representation) 

Hoag,  C.  G.  Effective  Voting  or  "Preferential  Voting"  and  "Proportional 
Representation."  American  Proportional  Representation  League 
Pamphlet  No.  3.     July,  1913. 

Proportional  Representation  Review.  Published  by  the  American  Propor- 
tional Representation  League,  Haverford,  Pennsylvania. 

{Equal  Suffrage) 

Brookings,  W.  DuB.,  and  Ringwalt,  R.  C,  eds.  Briefs  for  Debate  on 
Current  Political,  Economic,  and  Social  Topics.     New  York,  191 1. 

Franklin,  Margaret  L.,  comp.  The  Case  for  Woman  Suffrage:  A 
Bibliography.  With  an  Introduction  by  M.  Carey  Thomas.  New 
York,  1913. 

Phelps,  Edith  M.,  comp.  Selected  Articles  on  Woman  Suffrage.  Min- 
neapolis, 1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  493 


{Public  Schools) 


Rollins,  Frank.  School  Administration  in  Municipal  Government.  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Philosophy,  Psychology  and  Educa- 
tion.    Macmillan,    New    York.     1902. 

Dutton,  S.  T.,  and  Snedden,  D.  The  Administration  of  Public  Education 
in  the  United  States.     Macmillan,  New  York.     1912. 

Perry,  A.  C.  Outlines  of  School  Administration.  Macmillan,  New  York. 
1912. 

Johnston,  Charles  Hughes,  ed.  The  Modern  High  School :  Its  Administra- 
tion and  Extension.     Scribner's,  New  York.     19 14. 

Updegraff,  Harlan.  A  Study  of  E.xpenses  of  City  School  Systems.  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  5.     Washington,  191 2. 

Bostwick,  Andrew  Linn,  camp.  School  boards  :  methods  of  choosing  mem- 
bers, term  of  office,  number  and  qualifications.  St.  Louis  Munic- 
ipal Reference  Library.     November,   1913.     Typewritten. 

A  Comparative  Study  of  Public  School  Systems  in  the  Forty-eight  States. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation  :   Division  of  Education.     No.  E  1 24. 

Hanus,  P.  H.     School  Efficiency.     Yonkers-on-Hudson,  1914. 

{Public  Libraries) 

Ranck,  Samuel  H.  The  Library  and  the  School  in  Grand  Rapids.  Library 
Journal,  April,  1907. 

Schaper,  William  A.  The  Place  of  the  Public  Library  in  the  Administra- 
tion of  a  City.     National  Municipal  Revieiv,  October,  19 14. 

Tyler,  Alice  S.  Public  Libraries  in  Commission- Governed  Cities.  National 
Municipal  Review,  April,  1913. 

Rae,  W.  S.  C.     Public  Library  Administration.     New  York,  1913. 

{Municipal  Efficiency) 

Cerf ,  Myrtile.  Bureaus  of  Public  Efficiency :  A  Study  of  the  Purpose  and 
Methods    of    Organization.     National    Municipal    Review,    January, 

1913- 
Sait,  Edward  M.     Research  and  Reference  Bureaus.     National  Municipal 

Review,  January,  191 3. 
Upson,  L.  D.     The  Dayton  (Ohio)  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research.     National 

Municipal  Review,  July,    1914. 
Municipal  Efficiency.     Fifth  Annual  Conference  of  Mayors  and  Other  City 

Officials,  State  of  New  York.     Proceedings.     1914. 
New  York  City.     Municipal  Reference  Library.     A  list  of  references  on  the 

purchasing  of  municipal  supplies    and  related  topics.     Bulletin    No. 

5,  November  25,  1914,  of  the  Municipal  Reference  Branch  of  the  New 

York  Public  Library. 
Cleveland,  F.  A.     Chapters  on  Municipal  Administration  and  Accounting. 

New  York,  1909. 


494  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

{Home  Ride) 

Goodnow,    Frank    J.     Municipal    Home    Rule.     Macmillan,    New    York. 

1897. 
Agar,  John  G.     Legislative  Interference  in  New  York.     Municipal  Affairs, 

June,  1902. 
Woodruff,     Clinton     Rogers.     The     Pennsylvania     Rippers.     Municipal 

Affairs,  June,    1902. 
Maltbie,  Milo  Roy.     Home  Rule  in  Ohio.     Municipal  Affairs,  June,  1902. 
Crafts,  Clayton  E.     Local  Self-Government  in  Illinois.     Municipal  Affairs, 

June,  1902. 
Tanzer,  Laurence  Arnold.     Legislative  Interference  in  Municipal  Affairs 

and   the   Home   Rule   Program   in   New   York.     National  Municipal 

Review,  October,    1913. 
Smith,  J.  Allen.     Effect  of  State  Regulation  of  Public  Utilities  upon  Mu- 
nicipal Home  Rule.     The  Annals,  May,  1914. 
Merriam,  Charles  E.     The  Case  for  Home  Rule.     The  Annals,  January, 

1915- 

The  Park  Governments  of  Chicago :  An  Inquiry  into  their  Organization 
and  Methods  of  Administration.  Report  prepared  by  the  Chicago 
Bureau  of  Public  Efficiency.     December,  191 1. 

The  Nineteen  Local  Governments  in  Chicago :  A  Multiplicity  of  Over- 
lapping Taxing  Bodies  with  Many  Elective  Officials.  Report  pre- 
pared by  the  Chicago  Bureau  of  Public  Efficiency.  2d  ed.  March, 
1915- 

(State  vs.  Municipal  Control  of  Public  Utilities) 

Wilcox,    Delos     Franklin.     Municipal    Franchises.     2   vols.     Engineering 

News.,  New  York.     1910-1911. 
State  Regulation  of  Public  Utilities.    The  Annals,  May,  1914.    Twenty-eight 

articles  by  authorities,  grouped    under  the  following  general  heads  : 

Legislation  as  to  State  Public  Utility  Commissions ;    State  Regulation 

and    Municipal    Activities;     Uniform    Accounting    and    Franchises; 

Public  Control  over  Securities ;  Valuation  of  Public  Utilities ;  Electric 

and  Water  Rates;    Standards  for  Service. 
King,    Clyde   Lyndon,    ed.    Municipal   Ownership   in    California    through 

Public  Utility  Districts.     National  Municipal  Review,  January,  1914. 

Notes  and  Events. 
Eshleman,  John  Morton.     State  vs.  Municipal  Regulations  of  Public  Utili- 
ties.    National  Municipal  Review,  January,  1913. 
Regulation  of  Public  Utilities  in  Wisconsin :    An  Analysis  of  the  System 

and  the  Results.     Published  by  The  Minnesota  Home  Rule  League, 

Minneapolis.     March,  19 14. 
Smith,  J.  Allen.     Municipal  vs.  State  Control  of  Public  Utilities.     Natiorud 

Municipal  Review,  January,  19 14. 
King,  Clyde  Lyndon.     Regulation  of  Municipal  Utilities.     Appleton,  New 

York.     1912. 
Pond,  Oscar  L.     A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Public  Utilities  Operating  in 

Cities  and  Towns.     Bobbs-Merrill,  Indianapolis.     1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  495 

Mitchel,  John  Purroy.     Local  and  State  Regulation  of  Municipal  Utilities. 

The  Annals,  January,  1915. 
Erickson,  Halford.     The  Advantages  of  State  Regulation.     The  Annals, 

January,  191 5. 
Maltbie,  Milo  Roy.     The  Distribution  of    Functions  between  Local  and 

State  Regulation.     The  Annals,  January,  19 15. 
Gray,   J.    H.     Public   Service   Commissions.     American   Political   Science 

Association.     Proceedings.     1907. 


INDEX 


Abbey,    E.    A.,    mural    decorations    in 

Boston  Public  Library,  340. 
Abbott,  Edith,  report  to  Merriam  Crime 

Committee,  Chicago,  isg. 
Aberdeen  (Wash.),  waste   disposal,    81. 
Abingdon  (Va.),  High  School,  345. 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Chicago, 

250.  273- 

Accidents,  percentage  of,  143;  pre- 
vention, 143,  144. 

Administration,  improvement,  374 ; 
federal  system,  376,  377;  bicameral 
system,  377,  S7&;  organic  federal 
system,  378;  business  system,  379, 
380 ;  autocratic  system,  381-383 ; 
council  system,  383,  384;  ultra 
commission,  384-386;  organic  coun- 
cil, 386-389 ;  home  rule,  389-391 ; 
Chicago,  392 ;  metropolitan  Boston, 
393,  394;  organic  home  rule,  Los 
Angeles,  394.  See  also  Government, 
Municipal  Ownership,  etc. 

.\dvertising,  libraries,  245 ;  Newark 
municipality,  331 ;  Baltimore,  331 ; 
billboards,  348-350. 

Agassiz  School,  at  Boston,   215. 

Akron  (O.),  paving  at,  58;  university, 
225;    college,  227. 

Alaska,  political  annexation,  16. 

Albany  (N.  Y.),  filtration,  93;  death 
rate,  107. 

Albion    (Mich.),    sewer    commissioners, 

390- 

Alcohol,  in  cities,  4 ;  regulation,  145- 
147;  municipal  dances,  312;  and 
woman's  suffrage,  388. 

Alexandria  (La.),  city  hall,  340. 

Alhambra  (Cal.),  sewage  farm,  102. 

Alleghany  (Pa.),  typhoid  death  rate,  92. 

Alleghany  County  Court  House,  Pitts- 
burgh, 336. 

Alleghany   River,   water  from,   92,    108. 

Altoona  (Pa.),  Vocational  Night  School, 
2ig. 

American  Institute  of  Architects,  14. 


American  Library  Association,  founded, 

228. 
American  Medical  Association,  307. 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 

251- 

Anacostia  River,  in  city  plan  of  Wash- 
ington, 329. 

Andover   (Wis.),  school  campus,   11. 

Ann  Arbor  (Mich.),  concrete  pavement, 

59- 
Apprentices,  continuation  schools,   223, 

224. 
Arbor  Day,  observed  in  Newark  schools, 

295- 

Archery,  in  Washington  Park,  Chicago, 
290. 

Architecture,  character,  14 ;  post  office, 
15;  public  comfort  stations,  103; 
Spanish,  276;  landscape,  281;  civic, 
12,  337-339;  library  buildings,  340, 
341 ;  schoolhouses,  341-345 ;  civic 
centers,  345-348.  See  also  Art,  Build- 
ings, etc. 

Arlington  (Mass.),  pageants,  324. 

Arnold  Arboretum,  at  Cambridge,   251. 

Arnold,  Bion  J.,  Chicago  city  engineer, 
41,  44. 

Art,  in  schools,  11;  galleries,  11,  246; 
civic,  65 ;  art  centers,  65,  262,  263 ; 
library  collections,  237 ;  Municipal 
Art  Society,  Baltimore,  284;  WilUam 
Morris  on,  293 ;  museum,  Toledo, 
338;  Public  School  Art  Society, 
Evanston,  345 ;  New  York  Art  Com- 
mission, 353 ;  Chicago  World's  Fair, 
353 ;  municipal  commissions,  354, 
355.  See  also  Architecture,  Dancing, 
Museums,  Music,  Theater,  etc. 

Art  Institute,  Chicago,  importance,  249, 
25s,  262. 

Art  instruction.     See  Education. 

Astor  Library,  at  New  York,  236,  341. 

Athletics.     See  Recreation. 

Atlanta  (Ga.),  sewage  disposal,  98; 
public  organs,  314. 


497 


498 


INDEX 


Atlantic  City  (N.  J.),  public  comfort 
stations,  103 ;  defective  children, 
treatment,  191. 

Auditoriums.     See  Halls. 

Augusta  (Ga.),  municipal  ownership  of 
canals,  372. 

Australia,  riparian  rights,  22. 

Babies.     See  Infants. 

Baker,  Newton  D.,  mayor  of  Cleveland, 
125,  313.  322.  378. 

Balboa,  discoverer,  322. 

Ballot.    See  Franchise. 

Baltimore  (Md.),  140;  poles,  10;  Monu- 
ment Square,  1 1 ;  Washington  Monu- 
ment, 338 ;  grade  crossing  accidents, 
18;  harbor  improvements,  22;  pav- 
ing, 55,  56;  buried  wires,  64,  65; 
lighting,  65 ;  waste  disposal,  80 ; 
sewage  disjxjsal,  10,  80,  98,  100,  loi ; 
filtration,  92,  93 ;  sanitation,  loi ; 
pubUc  laundries,  10,  105,  106,  308; 
pubUc  markets,  in,  112;  campaign 
against  mosquitoes,  128;  high  pres- 
sure fire  system,  133;  deficient 
children,  treatment,  190;  public 
hbrary,  236;  legislative  reference 
department,  241 ;  Mount  Vernon 
Place,  276;  parks,  283,  284;  baths, 
308;  factory  site  commission,  331; 
height  of  buildings,  334;  thorough- 
fares, 335  ;  public  decorations,  355  ; 
street  railway  receipts,  357. 

Barrie,  Sir  James,  mentioned,  319. 

Bartelme,  Mary  M.,  judge  in  juvenile 
courts,  153,  154. 

Baseball,  in  parks,  290.  See  also  Rec- 
reation. 

Bates  Hall,   Boston.    See  Libraries. 

Baths,  public,  104,  105;  in  New  York, 
267,  310,  311;  in  Boston,  297,  307- 
310. 

Battery  (N.  Y.),  emigrant  station,  38. 

Baxter,  Sylvester,  secretary  of  Boston 
Park  Conunission,  286. 

Beethoven  Musical  Society,  uses  New 
York  recreation  centers,  268. 

Belleville  (Wis.),  social  centers,   258. 

Ben  Greet  Company,  dramatic  group, 
262. 

Bennett,  Arnold,  cited,  138. 

Bennett,  E.  H.,  city  planning,  348,  352, 
353- 

Berkeley  (Cal.),  medical  records  system, 
118;   education  in,  211. 


Berks  County  (Pa.),  city  in,  29. 

BerUn  (N.  H.),  education  in,  213. 

Beverly  (Mass.),  cooperative  school 
system  in,  220,  221;  United  Shoe 
Machinery  Company,  221 ;  bowling 
alley,  261. 

Bigelow,  Herbert,  in  Constitutional 
Convention,  259. 

Biggs  (Cal.),  educational  motion  pic- 
ture theater,  318. 

Billboards.     See  Advertising. 

Birmingham  (Ala.),  moral  training  in 
schools,  187;  hygienic  teaching,  189; 
school  lunches,  193;  parents'  centers, 
261 ;  incinerators  in  parks,  291 ;  trees, 
293 ;    city  planning,  330. 

Births,  registration,  116. 

Blackman,  R.  M.,  school  principal  and 
civic  secretary,  266. 

Blackwell's  Island,  description,  27. 

Blankenburg,  R.,  cited,  377. 

Blind,    libraries   for,    233. 

Bloomfield,  Meyer,  vocational  bureau, 
224. 

Bloomington  (Md.),  city  heating,  371. 

Blue  Earth  (Minn.),  fly  extermination, 
127. 

Board  of  Education.  See  Government 
and  Education. 

Board  of  Health.  See  Health  and 
Government. 

Board  of  Trade.     See  Government. 

Boise  (Idaho),  agricultural  education, 
198;    education  in,  213. 

Bonniwell,  Judge,  Court  of  Domestic 
Relations,   155. 

Bonstelle,  Jessie,  pubUc  recreation,  319, 
320. 

Boston  (Mass.),  swimming  pools,  10; 
public  libraries,  11,  228,  231,  232, 
236,  237,  238,  239,  340,  341 ;  park 
system,  12,  274,  282,  285-288;  park 
commission,  286,  288;  parks,  rural, 
288;  parks,  expenditure  on,  288; 
Common,  12,  271,  275,  292;  grade 
crossing  accidents,  18;  harbor  im- 
provements, 23  ;  piers,  23 ;  suburbs, 
32,  34;  subways,  10,  33-38,  44, 
361;  rapid  transit,  32-35;  municipal 
railway  regulation,  33-36 ;  street 
paving,  56-58,  61 ;  conduits,  62,  63, 
91 ;  lighting  system,  65 ;  sprinkling 
cars,  74 ;  waste  collection,  78 ;  snow 
disposal,  84 ;  water  front,  84 ;  water 
conservation,  87 ;    water  supply,  91 ; 


INDEX 


499 


discharge  of  sludge,  97 ;  sewage 
disposal,  gg,  100;  water  ways,  regu- 
lation, 1 00;  public  comfort  stations, 
103 ;  death  rate  comparison,  107, 
108 ;  skyscrapers,  1 1 1 ;  public  mar- 
kets, iii;  public  nurses,  116;  school 
nurses,  118;  medical  inspection  of 
school  children,  116,  117;  dental 
infirmary,  120;  division  of  child 
hygiene,  120;  tuberculosis,  fight 
against,  123,  124;  cars,  standardiza- 
tion, fire  department,  131 ;  fire  boat 
service,  132 ;  high  pressure  fire  ser- 
vice, 133;  city  police  service,  136; 
traffic,  police  regulation,  142;  safety 
devices,  144;  juvenile  probation, 
151;  municipal  court,  158;  municipal 
lodging  house,  172;  unemployed,  how 
aided,  173,  175;  kindergartens,  177; 
Montessori  method  in  Andrews  School, 
178;  drawing,  required  study,  181; 
art  instruction,  182 ;  school  gardens, 
196;  Agassiz  school,  215;  trade 
school,  218;  continuation  schools, 
223;  vocational  bureau,  224;  mu- 
seum, 251;  children's  museum,  251; 
Japanese  collection,  24g ;  social  cen- 
ters, 260;  recreation,  260;  citizen- 
ship centers,  265;  boulevards,  278, 
279;  organized  play,  296,  297;  public 
baths,  309,  310;  camping  organiza- 
tions, 311;  municipal  music,  315; 
ward  halls,  316;  Sunday  observance, 
320,  321 ;  Christmas  waits  and  carols, 
322;  city  planning,  327,  328;  build- 
ings, height,  3,3,5,  334;  thoroughfares, 
lack,  335 ;  architecture,  338 ;  aqua- 
riums, 339 ;  monuments,  339 ; 
municipal  art  commissions,  354 ; 
land  values,  358;  printing  depart- 
ment, 371,  372;  finance  commission, 
380,  384,  394;  home  rule,  391; 
taxation,  393 ;  metropolitan  govern- 
ment, 393 ;    gas  company,  396. 

Bostwick,  Arthur,  St.  Louis  Public 
Library,  240. 

Boulder  (Colo.),  rural  park,  290;  city 
planning,  329. 

Boy  Scouts,  interested  in  fire  prevention, 

135- 

Bridgeport  (Conn.),  milk  station,  115; 
dental  clinic,  120;  dental  nurse,  120; 
school  days,  lengthening,  199 ;  in- 
dustrial school  at,  217. 

Bridges,    in   New    York    City,    26-29; 


utilization,  40;  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
339  1  High  Bridge,  339;  Susquehanna 
Bridge,  s.V)',    Cabin  John  Bridge,  339. 

Brighton  (Mass.),  public  library,  240. 

British  Museum,  a  reference  library, 
230. 

Bronx  (N.  Y.),  17,  27;  transit  to,  40; 
water  supply,  go;  motion  picture 
theater,  264;  streets  used  as  play- 
ground, 301. 

Bronx  Park  zoological  garden,  the  largest 
in  world,  2g2,  342. 

Bronx  River  Parkway,  278. 

Brookings  (S.  D.),  city  heating,  371  ; 
telephone  system,  371. 

Brookline  (Mass.),  water  supply,  gi  ; 
open  air  schoolrooms,  201 ;  public 
library,  234 ;  playground,  297 ;  swim- 
ming pools,  308 ;  natatorium  on  the 
Atlantic,  309 ;    public  buildings,  346. 

Brooklyn  (N.  Y.),  17,  26;  terminals, 
37 ;  subway,  38 ;  tunnel  systems, 
37~39 ;  rapid  transit,  40 ;  street 
tearing,  61 ;  waste  disposal,  82 ; 
water  supply,  90;  sewer  trunks,  99; 
tenements,  no;  high  pressure  fire 
system,  133;  civics,  teaching,  187; 
elementary  schools,  208-210;  chil- 
dren's library,  234,  238;  library,  236; 
traveling  library,  239 ;  Institute  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  250;  free  lectures, 
259;  motion-picture  theater,  264; 
driveways,  278;  athletic  field  in 
Prospect  Park,  290;  out  door  eating, 
291 ;  streets,  335  ;  Society  for  Parks 
and  Playgrounds,  299 ;  playgrounds, 
streets  used  as,  301 ;  Erasmus  School, 
343 ;  civic  center,  347 ;  buildings, 
347;  city  plan,  352.     5ee  a/50  Bridges. 

Brownsville,  in  Brooklyn,  children's 
branch  library,  238. 

Buchtel   College,   at   Akron,   Ohio,    227. 

Buckley,  M.  T.,  civic  secretary,  266. 

Buffalo  (N.  Y.),  grade  crossing  accidents, 
18;  paving,  56-58,  61;  smoke  abate- 
ment, 8s  ;  water,  use,  87  ;  tuberculosis 
hospital,  124;  fire  system,  133;  court 
fines,  160,  161 ;  hygienic  teaching, 
189;  museum  cooperation,  205,  338; 
public  library,  235 ;  library  and 
school  cooperation,  243 ;  boulevards, 
277  ;  plantation  of  trees,  293  ;  trans- 
portation, 347 ;  civic  center,  347 ; 
public  baths,  310;  planned  by  Joseph 
Ellicott,  327- 


500 


INDEX 


Buildings,  municipal,  increase,  ii;  city 
builds,  14;  attraction  of  public,  8; 
Capitol,  Washington,  15;  codes  for, 
133,  134;  skyscrapers,  332-334; 
New  York  Heights  of  Buildings 
Commission,  334 ;  library,  340,  341 ; 
schoolhouses,  341-345-  See  also  Archi- 
tecture. 

Bumham,  D.  H.,  architect,  14,  353 ; 
Burnham  and  Company,  architects, 
339.  348. 

Business,  High  School  of  Commerce, 
Cleveland,  215;  in  towns,  331,  332; 
district*,  331,  332;  and  municipal 
ownership,  360-363 ;  municipal  trad- 
ing, 369-371;  private  initiative  and 
ownership,  372,  373;  standards  of, 
399;  in  Omaha,  363,  364;  Ypsilanti, 
365,  366.     See  also  Industry. 

Butte  (Mont.),  paving,  58;  ugliness,  331. 

Calhoun,  Patrick,  railway  grafter,  51, 
361. 

California,  shore  lines,  24;  use  of  mac- 
adam, 60;  of  oil,  74;  protection 
against  rats,  129;  products,  174;  vol- 
untary study  in  schools,  199;  laws 
regulating  colleges,  225 ;  social  cen- 
ters, 258 ;  tree  planting  by  assessment, 
293;  definition  of  business  areas,  332 
public  utilities,  367,  391 ;  woman's  suf 
frage  and  the  liquor  question,  388 
home  rule  laws,  394. 

Cambridge  (Mass.),  water  supply,  87,  91 
death  rate,  108;    schools,  179;   vaca- 
tion school,  199. 

Camden  (N.  J.)  tunnel,  45. 

Camping,  encouraged  in  rural  parks,  292. 

Canals  through  various  cities,  336.  See 
also  Transportation. 

Capitol,  grounds,  277 ;  at  Washington, 
284. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  municipal  organs, 
Pittsburgh,  314;   public  libraries,  342. 

Carnegie  Libraries.     Sec  Libraries. 

Caruso,  Enrico,  deprived  of  freedom, 
158. 

Cascade  Mountains,  mentioned,  70. 

Cedar  Rapids  (la.),  civic  center,  346. 

Cedar  River,  water  supply  from,  70. 

Cemeteries,  as  recreation  grounds,  271. 

Censorship,  municipal  dancing,  312. 

Centennial  Exposition,  at  Philadelphia, 
20. 

CentraJ  Park.     See  New  York, 


Chadwick,  Cassie,  mentioned,  361. 

Chambers  of  Commerce  and  Municipal 
Finance,  368. 

Charity,  bestowal,  163-176;  socializa- 
tion, 163-165 ;  Public  Welfare  De- 
partments, 165-169 ;  Widows'  Pension 
Bureau,  San  Francisco,  169,  170;  Mu- 
nicipal Lodging  House,  New  York,  170- 
172  ;  municipal  employment  bureaus, 
172-176;  no  longer  necessary,  306; 
of  Andrew  Carnegie,  342. 

Charlesbank  Gymnasiums,  Boston,  297. 

Charles  River,  signaling  system,  144. 

Charleston  (S.  C),  Battery,  277  ;  munic- 
ipal art  commission,  354;  municipal 
ownership  of  powder  magazine,  372. 

Charters,  for  harbors,  23 ;  and  Public 
Welfare  Department,  164,  165;  for 
cities,  378;  St.  Paul,  385,  386;  Kansas 
City,  386 ;  St.  Louis,  386 ;  Los  Angeles, 
386;  Ypsilanti,  365.  See  also  Gov- 
ernment. 

Chase,  H.  Lincoln,  open  air  schoolrooms, 
201. 

Chattanooga  (Tenn.),  municipal  admin- 
istration, 385. 

Chesbrough,  E.  S.,  organizes  sewerage 
system,  95. 

Chicago  (lU.),  topography,  18;  conges- 
tion, 3  ;  telephones,  10;  freight  tuimels, 
10,  42 ;  drinking  fountains,  10,  104 ; 
recreation,  10,  12,  207,  290,  291,  292, 
297,  302-305,  311,  313,  314,  320,  323; 
courts,  II,  149-161 ;  juvenile  courts, 
151-154,  157;  Domestic  Relations, 
154.  15s;  felony  cases,  159;  court 
fines,  160,  161 ;  Board  of  Public  Wel- 
fare, 11;  education,  11,  182-185,  190, 
191,  192,  200,  202-204,  254;  manual 
training,  214;  continuation  schools, 
223;  university,  225;  schoolhouses, 
265  ;  art :  galleries,  11;  art  and  educa- 
tion, 182,  183  ;  Art  Institute,  249,  250; 
gathering  of  artists,  353;  parks: 
park  system,  272-275,  291 ;  nual 
parks,  289;  Grant  Park,  12;  Wash- 
ington Park,  290 ;  Lincoln  Park,  339 ; 
transportation,  18-21,  32,  36,  40-44, 
78,  143,  369;  accidents,  18,  143;  mu-- 
nicipal  Tegxilsition,  20,  40-44,  143,  369, 
380;  municipal  ownership,  43,  63,  68, 
69,  172,  241,  367,  369;  franchises,  42- 
44 ;  municipal  conduit,  63  ;  municipal 
electric  plant,  68,  69;  municipal  lodg- 
ing houses,  172;    municipal  reference 


INDEX 


501 


library,  241,  255;  finance,  42-44; 
paving,  55,  56,  58;  streets  and  boule- 
vards, 56,  72,  277,  336,  3SS  ;  electricity, 
63.  67 ;  gas,  66 ;  public  lighting,  6g, 
72;  waste,  78;  smoke,  84,  85,  86; 
water,  87,  93,  94,  96;  drainage,  93; 
sewage,  94-96 ;  filtration,  96 ;  locks, 
96 ;  Sanitary  District,  96  ;  death  rate, 
94,  108,  109;  medical  inspection  of 
public  schools,  117;  physical  examina- 
tions, 118;  school  nurses,  118;  dental 
clinic,  119,  120;  tuberculosis  sanita- 
rium, 122;  contagious  diseases  hospi- 
tal, 124;  fire,  133,  134,  I35 ;  police, 
137,  140,  141,  145 ;  Safety  Commis- 
sions, 143,  144;  moral  commissions, 
147,  148 ;  Vice  Commission,  147 ;  em- 
ployment bureaus,  173,  175;  domestic 
science,  180,  181 ;  civics,  teaching  of, 
184,  185;  hygienic  teaching,  190;  de- 
ficient pupils,  treatment,  190,  191 ; 
home  schools,  192  ;  welfare  work,  202  ; 
truancy  schools,  203,  204 ;  museums, 
206,  250,  254 ;  public  libraries,  230, 
232,  236,  239,  240,  242,  24s,  248,  254, 
341 ;  social  centers,  254 ;  field  houses, 
270;  Skokie  Marshes,  289;  skating, 
tennis,  golf,  290,  291 ;  refreshments, 
291 ;  Women's  Clubs,  254,  302,  303 ; 
mimicipal  dancing,  313,  314;  city 
planning,  327;  dock  extensions,  332; 
skyscrapers,  333 ;  field  houses,  338 ; 
Lion  House,  Lincoln  Park,  339;  city 
hall,  339,  340;  school  architecture, 
342-344 ;  civic  centers,  345 ;  recon- 
struction, 348;  poUtics,  348;  bill- 
boards, 348-350;  World's  Columbian 
Exposition,  353  ;  business  men,  361 ; 
pubHc  utilities,  380 ;  taxation,  385 ; 
mayoralty  elections,  388,  389;  debt 
limit,  392  ;   Home  Rule,  392. 

Chicago  Society  of  Artists,  traveling  col- 
lection, 262. 

Children,  schools,  6 ;  nurseries,  106 ; 
death  rate,  114,  115  ;  welfare  stations, 
114,115;  hygiene,  115,  116;  defective, 
117;  physical  examinations,  118; 
clinics,  123;  protection,  140;  juvenile 
courts,  II,  150-154;  defective  chil- 
dren in  court,  157  ;  psychopathic  insti- 
tutes, 157,  158;  vocational  education, 
214;  libraries,  233.  See  also  Educa- 
tion. 

Children's  Theater,  New  York,  262. 

Christopher,  Walter  Scott,  Department 


of  Child  Study  and  Pedagogic  Investi- 
gation, 190. 

Chubb,  Percival,  social  worker,  323. 

Church,  Alonzo,  secretary  of  Boston  Park 
Commission,  288. 

Cincinnati  (Ohio),  hamiiered  by  fran- 
chise, 48;  Rapid  Transit  Commission, 
48;  laws  relating  to  street  tearing,  62 ; 
waste  collection,  76;  filtration,  92; 
public  laundries,  105  ;  death  rate,  108, 
dental  clinics,  1 20 ;  municipal  hospital, 
121;  municipal  tuberculosis  sanita- 
rium, 121;  bad  government,  121; 
Houses  of  Refuge  for  Boys  and  Girls, 
162;  Charities  and  Corrections,  164; 
school  system,  180;  school  music,  183  ; 
defective  children,  191 ;  cooperative 
schools,  220;  Woodward  High  School, 
221;  continuation  schools,  222;  uni- 
versity, 225,  226;  children's  clinic, 
226;  public  library,  232;  municipal 
reference  library,  241 ;  social  centers, 
259;  Town  Meeting  Society,  260; 
outdoor  eating  in  parks,  291 ;  zoologi- 
cal gardens,  292 ;  municipal  dances, 
312;  biennial  music  festivals,  321; 
schoolhouses,  345 ;  business  and  poli- 
tics, 361. 

Cities,  conservation,  1-12;  life,  2,  4; 
destructive  agencies,  2 ;  dynamics  of, 
1-3  ;  immaturity,  3-6 ;  congestion,  3  ; 
evils,  4;  knowledge  of,  6-8;  cleanli- 
ness, 10-12;  control,  18;  suburbs,  32; 
waste  disposal,  73-86;  soot  destruc- 
tion, 84;  types:  seaport,  326-328; 
river,  328^329;  hill,  329-330;  prairie, 
33c^33i;  manager  for,  386,  397.  See 
also  the  several  cities. 

Citizenship  centers.     See  Social  Centers. 

City  Planning,  examples,  9;  Philadel- 
phia planned  by  Penn,  275  ;  seaports, 
326-328;  river  cities,  328,  329;  hill 
cities,  329,  330 ;  prairie  cities,  330,  331  ; 
business  districts,  331,  332;  height  of 
buildings,  332-334;  streets,  334-336; 
terminals,  336,  337  ;  civic  architecture, 
337-339 ;  city  halls,  339,  340 ;  library 
buildings,  340,  341 ;  schoolhouses,  341- 
345  ;  civic  centers,  345-348 ;  residen- 
tial areas,  348;  billboards,  348-350; 
recreation,  350;  typical  city  plans, 
350-354;  municipal  art  commissions, 
354.  355  ;  city  surveys,  355,  356;  mu- 
nicipal plan  commissions,  356,  357 ; 
city    plans    paying    for    themselves, 


502 


INDEX 


357.  3S8;  suggestions  for  reform, 
398. 

Civic  Centers,  buildings,  345-348. 

Civic  Rooms,  various  cities,  232. 

Civic  Secretaries,  duties,  266,  267. 

Civics,  teaching  of.     See  Education. 

Clapp,  Henry  M.,  school  gardens,  ig6. 

Class  consciousness,  effect  of,  4 ;  in  rela- 
tion to  life,  6. 

Cleaning.     See  Streets. 

Cleveland  (O.),  three  cent  fare,  street 
cars,  g,  32,  48,  49,  50,  51 ;  municipal 
buildings,  11;  accidents,  18;  subway 
construction,  36 ;  Tom  Johnson,  46, 
390 ;  corporations,  48 ;  schedule  of 
fares,  50 ;  transfers,  50 ;  street  paving, 
56;  brick  paving,  58;  arc  lights,  66; 
electric  plant,  69;  electric  street 
flusher,  74;  street  cleaning,  76;  waste 
collection,  78 ;  garbage,  7g ;  smoke, 
84;  water,  87,  88;  filtration,  92; 
public  markets,  112;  Little  Mother 
Leagues,  115;  anti-tuberculosis  agi- 
tation, 122;  campaign  against  flies, 
125,  126;  police,  139;  conciliation 
court,  150;  court  fines,  161;  correc- 
tional institution,  Cooley  Farm,  163 ; 
Public  Welfare  Department,  164,  165; 
Division  of  Health,  165;  Lecture 
Bureau,  165 ;  municipal  employment 
bureau,  175,  176;  hygiene,  iSg; 
deficient  pupils,  190;  school  gardens, 
196;  Technical  High  School,  215; 
High  School  of  Commerce,  215;  Ele- 
mentary Industrial  School,  216;  uni- 
versity, 227;  public  library,  230,  232, 
236;  children's  library,  234;  library 
training,  234 ;  art  museum,  250 ;  pub- 
lic baths,  308;  dance  pavilions,  308; 
three  cent  dances,  3og ;  municipal 
dances,  313;  municipal  music,  315; 
Community  Christmas  Tree,  322  ;  city 
planning,  327 ;  Union  Station,  337 ; 
museum,  338 ;  civic  centers,  345 ; 
County  Court  House,  346;  charter, 
387  ;  municipal  art,  353  ;  home  rule, 
3gi ;  business  and  politics,  361 ;  mu- 
nicipalization of  street  railways,  361 ; 
preferential  voting,  388. 

Clinics,  Children's,  at  Medical  College, 
Cincinnati,  226;  dental,  iig,  120. 

Coe,  George  A.,  music  collection,  237. 

Cold  storage  plant,  use  of,  112. 

Colorado,  juvenile  courts,  151 ;  anarchy 
in,  346;  woman's  suffrage,  388. 


Colorado  Springs  (Colo.),  drives,  12,  279; 
Sunday  observance,  320;  city  plan- 
ning, 329;   library  building,  341. 

Columbia  Valley,  the,  mentioned,  279. 

Columbus  (Ga.),  industrial  school  in,  216. 

Columbus  (O.),  street  railway  franchises, 
48;  pavements,  58;  waste  collection, 
78. 

Comfort  stations.  See  Public  comfort 
stations. 

Commerce.     See  Business  and  Industry. 

Commercial  High  School,  at  Brooklyn, 
259- 

Commissions,  municipal,  356,  357,  394; 
art,  354,  355;  city  planning,  352;  as 
form  of  government,  353,  383,  384, 
387 ;   salaries,  385. 

Commons,  The  Boston.     See  Boston. 

Communal  wants,  municipal  ownership, 
359,  360. 

Communication,  ease  of,  g,  17,  334-339. 
See  also  Streets,  Transportation,  etc. 

Competition,  waste,  5 ;  results,  30;  Tom 
Johnson,  51. 

Composite  city,  8,  g. 

Concerts.     See  Music. 

Concordia  (Kan.),  municipal  theater, 
318. 

Condon,  Randall  J.,  Home  School,  193 ; 
cited,  214,  215. 

Conduits.     See  Wires. 

Coney  Island,  settling  basin,  99;  munic- 
ipal bathhouse,  310,  311. 

Congress.     See  Government. 

Connecticut,  industrial  schools,  in,  217; 
Sunday  observance,  321;  municipal 
land  purchase,  358. 

Constitution.  See  Government,  Admin- 
istration, etc. 

Consumers,  organized  by  the  munici- 
pality, 359. 

Cook  County  (111.),  expenditure  on 
forest  reserves,  289. 

Cooley,  Harris  R.,  cited,  163. 

Cooperation,  compulsory,  2 ;  strength, 
2;  reward,  6;  in  schools,  213,  217, 
220-222;  municipal,  in  universities, 
226;    library  and  school,  242-245. 

Corporations,  business  and  politics,  361 ; 
freedom  of,  368;  municipal  immoral- 
ity, 374.  375 ;  regulation,  391.  See 
also  Public  Utilities,  Business,  etc. 

Correctional  Institutions.     See  Courts. 

Council  system.     See  Administration. 

Courts,  and  three  cent  fare,  49 ;  treated^ 


INDEX 


503 


140-163;  municipal,  140,  150,  168, 
169;  specialization,  149,  150;  con- 
ciliation, 150;  juvenile  probation,  150, 
iSi>  153.  ^S^'  400;  juvenile  courts, 
150-154;  domestic  relations,  154,  155; 
percentage  of  different  cases,  15s; 
night  courts,  156,  157;  women  of- 
fenders, 156,  157;  psychopathic  insti- 
tutes, 157,  158;  Public  Defender,  158- 
160;  court  fines,  160,  161;  correc- 
tional institutions,  161-1O3;  Board  of 
Parole  of  New  York,  162  ;  Parole  sys- 
tem, 168;  reformatory,  162;  New 
Hampton  Farm  Colony,  162 ;  Cooley 
farms,  163;    Ypsilanti,  366. 

Crane  and  Lane  Technical  High  Schools, 
at  Chicago,  224. 

Crichton,  James  E.,  organizes  waste 
disposal,  81. 

Crunden,  F.  M.,  librarian,  231. 

Curtis,  Cyrus  H.  K.,  gives  organ  to  Port- 
land, 314. 

Dallas  (Tex.),  viaduct,  28;  city  nursery 
of  trees,  293. 

Dana,  John  C,  librarian  of  Newark 
Library,  245. 

Dancing,  dance  halls,  supervision,  167, 
168;  at  Evansville,  212;  Chicago 
playgrounds,  304 ;  Cleveland  dance 
pavilions,  308;  three  cent  dances, 
309;  municipal  dancing,  311-314. 
See  also  Recreation. 

Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution, 
mentioned,  270. 

Davenport  (la.),  water  fronts,  23 ; 
freight  terminals,  23 ;  river  shipping, 
23  ;  museum  cooperation,  205  ;  natu- 
ral history  museum,  250. 

Dawson,  Jean,  campaign  against  flies,  1 25. 

Dayton  (O.),  public  nurses,  116;  Public 
Welfare  Department,  165,  166; 
Health,  Division  of,  165;  Corrections, 
Division  of,  166;  school  gardens,  196; 
art  museum,  250;    city  manager,  386. 

Death  rate,  decrease  in  U.  S.,  107-110; 
infants,  decrease  in,  114,  115;  chil- 
dren, decrease  in,  114. 

Debating,  in  Rochester  social  center,  257. 

Deficient  Children.     See  Education. 

De  Forest,  Robert  W.,  organization  of 
Tenement  House  Department,  no. 

De  Groat,  E.  B.,  director  of  playgrounds, 
303- 

Delaware  River,  region  near,  21. 


Democracy,  relation  of  city  to,  i ;  ab- 
stract, 2 ;  concrete,  2 ;  of  American 
municipal  lil^rary,  340;  the  city  the 
hope  of,  359 ;  popular  rule  and  munici- 
pal administration,  387. 

Dental  clinics,  119,  120. 

Denver  (Colo.),  situation,  9 ;  cleanliness, 
10;  jitneys,  31;  street  lighting,  72; 
rubbish  receptacles,  73,  74;  smoke 
abatement,  85 ;  milk  transportation 
113;  juvenile  courts,  151,  152;  sup- 
plemented by  parental  court,  152; 
municipal  lodging  house,  172;  school 
children,  idea  of  advancement,  179; 
boulevards,  280;  mountain  drives, 
289,  290;  campers  encouraged  in  the 
rural  parks,  292 ;  Rocky  Mountain 
parks,  311;  plantation  of  trees,  293; 
music  in  the  Municipal  Auditorium, 
315,  317;  civic  centers,  346;  public 
decorations,  355 ;  street  railway  re- 
ceipts, 357  ;  business  and  politics,  361 ; 
municipal  ownership  of  irrigation 
works,  372 ;  woman's  suffrage  and 
Judge  Lindsay,  388. 

Des  Moines  (la.),  civic  center,  345  ;  mu- 
nicipal buildings,  346 ;  initiative, 
referendum  and  recall,  388. 

Desplaines  River,  canal  to,  96. 

Detroit  (Mich.),  libraries,  11,  236;  com- 
petition, result,  30 ;  municipal  railway 
regulation,  46,  47,  361 ;  United  Rail- 
way, mortgages,  47 ;  paving,  55,  56, 
58,  61 ;  municipal  conduit,  building, 
63  ;  arc  lights,  66 ;  smoke  abatement, 
85;  police  station  for  women,  140; 
civic  rooms,  232  ;  motion  pictures,  264 ; 
city  planning,  328;  constitution  of 
Michigan,  365 ;  municipal  trading, 
370.  371 ;   public  utilities,  391. 

Diseases,  tuberculosis,  loss  from,  108 ; 
tuberculosis  hospitals,  121,  122-124; 
tuberculosis  camping  facilities,  311; 
typhoid,  decrease  in,  108,  109;  ty- 
phoid, cause,  1 26 ;  contagious,  117; 
children,  defects  of,  117,  120;  infec- 
tious, hospitals  for,  124,  125;  malaria, 
decrease  in,  128.  See  also  Medical 
Inspection. 

District  of  Columbia,  grade  crossings, 
14  ;  buildings,  height  of,  333  ;  admin- 
istration, 381. 

Districts,  types  of,  industrial,  331,  332; 
residential,  331,  332,  348;  business, 
331,  332. 


504 


INDEX 


Docks.    See  Harbors. 

Domestic  Science.    See  Education. 

Drainage.     See  Water. 

Drama.    See  Theater. 

Drama  League  of  Minneapolis,  mentioned, 
264. 

Dressmaking.    See  Industry. 

Drinking  fountains.  See  Public  Drink- 
ing Fountains. 

Driveways.    See  Streets. 

Dubuque  (la.),  slaughter  houses,  113. 

Duluth  (Minn.),  municipal  lighting 
plants,  68;  Correction  Farm,  162; 
unemployed,  aided,  173;  Boulevard 
Drive,  277. 

Earhart,  Will,  director  of  music,  184. 

East  Boston  High  School,  mentioned, 
260. 

East  River,  26;  tunnels  and  tracts,  16, 
90;   bridges,  27;   sewage,  98,  99. 

East  St.  Louis  (111.),  architecture,  340. 

East  Side  Forum,  at  New  York,  269. 

Economics,  teaching  of,   222,  257. 

Education,  public,  5  ;  public  school  cen- 
ter of  beauty,  11;  reform,  8,  179; 
police  and  fire,  144,  145 ;  improve- 
ment, 166;  night  schools  for  immi- 
grants, 176;  indoor,  177-194;  kinder- 
gartens, 177,  178;  elementary  grades, 
179;  annual  training,  179,  180,  212- 
214;  domestic  science,  180,  181;  art 
instruction,  181-183;  music,  183,  184; 
civics,  184-187;  moral  training,  187, 
188;  hygiene,  188-190;  exceptional 
children,  190,  191 ;  school  lunches, 
191-193  ;  home  school,  193,  194;  out- 
door, 195-210;  nature  study,  195,  196; 
gardens,  196,  197;  agricultural,  197, 
198;  homework,  198,  199;  vacation, 
199,  200 ;  open  air,  200-202 ;  welfare 
work,  202,  203;  truancy,  203,  204; 
truant  officer,  1 1 ;  evening,  204  ;  sav- 
ings banks,  205  ;  museum  cooperation, 
205,  206 ;  all-year  school,  206,  207, 
252;  elementary,  207-211;  Junior 
High  schools,  211,  212;  grammar 
schools,  211  ;  high  schools,  211 ;  indus- 
trial, 212,  216-219;  foreign  languages, 
212;  English,  212;  high  school  fra- 
ternities, 213;  vocational,  214,  215; 
prevocational,  215,  216;  scholarships, 
218;  vocational  high  schools,  219,  220; 
schools  of  telegraphy,  220;  marine 
high  school,  220;    continuation,  222- 


224;  vocational  guidance,  224-225; 
junior  colleges,  225 ;  English  depart- 
ment, 225  ;  university  of  Chicago,  225  ; 
municipal  universities,  225-227  ;  med- 
ical work  of  universities,  225-227; 
Training  School  for  Children's  Libra- 
rians, 234;  University  of  Wisconsin, 
253;  school  extension,  254;  univer- 
sity extension,  254 ;  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, 254;  Chicago,  254;  publicity, 
255;  Rochester,  256;  use  of  school- 
houses,  256-259,  261,  265,  266,  269, 
296 ;  hygiene  in,  343 ;  free  lectures, 
259;  High  School  of  Commerce,  New 
York,  267 ;  New  York  playgrounds, 
301;  motion  pictures,  318;  Chatta- 
nooga commissioner  of  Health  and 
Education,  385. 

Efficiency,  municipal,  397,  398;  and  the 
city's  life,  401. 

Electricity,  street  lighting,  10;  steam, 
17;  use,  41;  railways,  52;  National 
Electric  Light  Assoc,  63 ;  Consoli- 
dated Electric  Subway  Co.,  63,  64; 
competition,  65-68 ;  gas  mantles,  65  ; 
arc  lights,  66-69,  80 ;  rates  for  private 
consumers,  68;  municipal  lighting 
plants,  65-72 ;  commercial  Lighting 
plants,  68;  rates,  71 ;  electric  cooking, 
71;  ornamental  lighting,  71,  72;  ex- 
penses, 72;  electrification  of  railways, 
86 ;  Pasadena  electric  plant,  362 ; 
constitution  of  Michigan,  365 ;  Lan- 
sing, 365  ;  Ypsilanti,  366 ;  franchises, 
367- 

Eliot,  Charles,  quoted,  285. 

Eliot,  Charles,  Jr.,  Boston  landscape 
architect,  286,  392. 

Ellicott,  Joseph,  planned  city  of  Buffalo, 
327- 

Elmira  (N.  Y.),  medical  inspection  of 
schools,  116;  dental  clinics,  120; 
school  savings  banks,  205. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  cited,  376. 

Employment  bureaus,  256,  266,  267,  400. 
See  also  Charity. 

Entomological  Experiment  Station,  New 
York,  294. 

Essex  County  (N.  J.),  mosquito  cam- 
paign, 127;   rural  parks,  288. 

Ettor,  comrade  of  Giovanitti,  158. 

Eugenics,  teaching,  6.     See  also  Health. 

Evanston  (111.),  public  library,  237 ; 
school  houses,  344 ;  Public  School  Art 
Society,  345. 


INDEX 


505 


Evansville  (Ind.),  education  in,  212. 

Evening  schools.     See  Kducation. 

Expositions,  in  libraries,  245 ;  loan 
exhibits,  Richmond,  Ind.,  262;  Pan- 
ama Pacific,  25,  59,  317;  Chicago 
World's  Fair,  353. 

Extension  systems.  See  Education  and 
Universities. 

Fairmont  Park.  See  Philadelphia  and 
Parks. 

Fall  River  (Mass.),  death  rate,  107 ; 
saloon  regulation,  146. 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  used  as  citizenship 
center,  265. 

Fares,  three-cent  line,  46,  50,  51;  trans- 
fer, 50;  schedule,  50;  sliding  scale,  51. 

Fargo  (N.  D.),  social  evil,  regulated, 
148. 

Farms  for  Delinquents.  See  Courts  and 
the  several  cities. 

Farragut  Memorial,  at  New  York,  i^g. 

Federal  Bureau  of  Labor,  cited,  18. 

Ferries.     See  Transportation. 

Festivals,  321-324;  New  York  citizen- 
ship festival,  265 ;  social  center 
pageant,  266 ;  Arbor  Day  observed  in 
Newark,  295 ;  safe  and  sane  Fourth  of 
July,  321,  322;  Community  Christ- 
mas, 322;  waits  and  carols,  322; 
democratic  festivals  needed,  400. 

Fetherston,  John  T.,  commissioner,  street 
cleaning,  76;   on  snow  disposal,  83. 

Field  Columbian  Museum,  at  Chicago, 
251. 

Filtration  of  Water.    See  Water. 

Finance,  municipal,  368,  372 ;  financial 
statistics  of  cities,  370-372. 

Fire  departments,  7,  130,  390;  commis- 
sions, 332;  protective  systems,  10,  133, 
134-136;  expense  of  water,  87;  es- 
capes, 109,  hi;  apparatus,  130,  131; 
boats,  use,  131;  platoon  system,  132, 
133;  losses  from,  133,  134;  schools, 
144,  145 ;  safe  and  sane  Fourth  of 
July,  321. 

Fisher,  Irving,  illness,  statistics,  108. 

Fisher,  Walter  L.,  city  counsel,  Chicago, 
44. 

Fitchburg  (Mass.),  Normal  School  at, 
216;  cooperative  school  system,  220, 
221. 

Flagg,  S.  B.,  investigation,  smoke  abate- 
ment, 85. 

Flies,  crusade  against,  125-127. 


Florida,  navigation  to,  95. 

Flushing  (N.  Y.),  High  School,  archi- 
tecture, 343. 

Ford,  G.  B.,  on  city  planning,  356. 

Forests,  reservations,  Boston,  286-288; 
expenditure  of  Chicago,  289 ;  munici- 
pal forestry,  292-295 ;  tree  pests  in 
New  England,  294. 

Fort  Wayne  (Ind.),  milk  transportation, 
113- 

Fort  Worth  (Tex.),  jitneys,  31. 

Foster,  J.  Frank,  superintendent  of 
parks,  281 ;  American  playground 
movement,  303. 

Fountains,  at  Cincinnati,  339 ;  of  Lorado 
Taft,  339.  See  also  Public  Drinking 
Fountains. 

Fowle,  William  Bently,  drawing  in 
schools,  181. 

Framingham  (Mass.),  sewerage  disposal, 
97- 

Franchises,  length,  7,  39,  42-44,  50,  51 ; 
for  freight  tunnels,  41,  42  ;  settlement, 
47-49 ;  perpetual,  50 ;  extension, 
52-54;  for  buried  wires,  63;  sliding 
scale,  65;  for  sewage  systems,  loi ; 
immigrant,  266;  public  utilities,  367, 
368;  municipal  immorality,  375; 
taxation,  369 ;  popular  rule,  387-389 ; 
preferential  voting,  388;  woman's 
suSrage,  388;  Municipal  Voters' 
League,  389 ;  Chicago,  392 ;  sugges- 
tions for  reform,  397-401. 

Franklin  Park,  in  Boston,  251. 

Free  speech,  Rochester  social  center,  257  ; 
Chicago  playgrounds,  304. 

Freight.     See  Railways. 

Fresno  (Cal.),  promotion  in  schools,  179; 
junior  college  at,  225, 

Friends  of  American  Art,  mentioned, 
249. 

Fullerton  Hail,  at  Chicago,  249. 

Galveston  (Tex.),  viaduct,  13;  dock 
companies,  22;  concrete  causeway, 
28 ;  Rosenberg  library,  247 ;  council 
form  of  government,  384,  385 ;  con- 
trasted with  Los  Angeles,  394. 

Gamblers,  court  fines,   161. 

Garbage,  handling,  25,  77 ;  systems  of 
disposal,  78-80,  82,  83,  98.  See  also 
Waste. 

Gardens.  See  Education  and  Landscape 
Gardening. 

Gardner,  G.  A.,  philanthropist,   173. 


5o6 


INDEX 


Garfield  Junior  High  School,  Richmond, 
Ind.,  organization,  212;  art  exhibits, 
263. 

Gary  (Ind.).  civics,  teaching  of,  186; 
moral  training  in  schools,  188;  na- 
ture study,  196;  all  year  school, 
200;  elementary  schools,  207,  20S; 
education,  211. 

Gas.  municipal  plants,  05,  66,  72,  362- 
366 ;    compared  with  private,  66-69. 

Geier,  Otto  P.,  charity  work  of,  164. 

Germans  in  Chicago,  273. 

Germany,  sewage  systems,  98. 

Gill,  Wilson  L.,  civics,  teaching  of,  187. 

Giovannitti,   deprived  of  freedom,   158. 

Girard,   Stephen,   philanthropist,   342. 

Glendale  (O.),   correctional  farm,   162. 

Gloucester  (Mass.),  lack  of  woods, 
287. 

Goethals,  Col.,  superiority  of  military 
methods,  75. 

Goler,  George  W.,  birth  statistics,  115. 

Golf,  courses,  290;  not  a  luxurious 
game,  291. 

Goodrich,  E.  P.,  mentioned,  356. 

Gorgas,  Edmund  Howard,  campaign 
against  mosquitoes,  128;  methods, 
386. 

Government,  municipal,  8;  federal 
dependence  of  cities,  22;  Phila- 
delphia channel,  22;  harbors,  23; 
levees,  25 ;  corruption  of  cities,  43, 
63;  improvement,  52;  Charter  of 
Public  Welfare  Dept.,  164,  165; 
self-government  in  schools,  212-214; 
Board  of  Education,  243,  254,  261, 
267 ;  city  government,  254 ;  self- 
government  in  recreation  clubs,  267 ; 
Denver  Chamber  of  Commerce,  280; 
lands  sold  to  Denver,  289;  tree 
planting  in  California,  293 ;  small 
parks  in  New  York  City,  298 ;  Brook- 
lyn Society  for  Parks  and  Playgrounds, 
299 ;  Chicago  parks,  302 ;  public 
baths,  310;  height  of  buildings,  3S3'> 
Greater  New  York  Charter,  352; 
laws  regarding  purchase  of  land, 
358;  best  government  governs  least, 
360;  Panama,  368;  District  of 
Columbia,  381-383 ;  executive  and 
legislative,  385 ;  municipal  efiSciency, 
395-401 ;  franchise,  397 ;  public 
utilities,  398 ;  city's  life,  400.  See 
also  Administration,  Commissions, 
Municipal  ownership,  etc. 


Grade  crossings.     See  Railways. 

Grand  Crossing  (111.),  public  library, 
240. 

Grand  Forks  (N.  D.),  slaughter  houses, 
113,  372. 

Grand  Junction  (Colo.),  preferential 
voting,  388. 

Grand  Rapids  (Mich.),  clinic  for  infant 
feedmg,  116;  moral  training  in 
schools,  188;  defective  children,  191; 
vocational  guidance,  224;  public 
library,  236;  library  and  school  co- 
operation, 243 ;  books  on  children, 
246;    social  centers,  260. 

Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway,  men- 
tioned, 32. 

Great  Lakes,  transportation  on,   24. 

Greenwich  (Conn.),  campaign  against 
mosquitoes,  128;  Village  Association, 
269. 

Gregory,  Ida  L.,  juvenile  court  work, 
152. 

Grifiin,  Delia  L.,  educator,   251. 

Guerin,  Jules,  decorates  Chicago  munic- 
ipal plan,  348. 

Guthrie    (OkJa.),    swimming   pool,    309. 

Gymnasiums.    See  Recreation. 

Halbert,  L.  A.,  public  welfare  work,  166. 

Halls,  school  auditorium,  Evansville, 
212;  library  auditoriums,  247;  social 
center  halls,  257 ;  Cincinnati,  259 ; 
schoolhouses,  used  as,  261 ;  Boulder's 
Rural  Park,  290;  Chicago  play- 
grounds, 304 ;  dance,  as  recruiting 
stations  for  vice,  312;  civic  audito- 
rium, San  Francisco,  314;  municipal 
auditorium,  Denver,  315;  municipal 
auditoriums,  316,  317;  New  England 
town  halls,  316;  Boston  ward  halls, 
316;  city  halls,  340;  Washington 
Irving  High  School,  342 ;  Ittner 
High  Schools,  343. 

Hamilton,    Alexander,    cited,    376,    381. 

Hamilton  (O.),  municipal  gas  works, 
361,  362. 

Haney,  James  P.,  art  education,  super- 
vision, 182. 

Harbors,  improvement,  22-26;  water 
fronts,  22-26;  piers,  building,  22- 
25 ;  docks,  ownership,  22 ;  docks, 
service,  24 ;  recreation  piers  added 
to  New  York  docks,  301 ;  docks, 
Chicago,  extension,  332 ;  wharves, 
ownership,  22,  25;   wharves,  increase, 


INDEX 


507 


23 ;     commissioners,    24 ;     ports,    24 ; 

tide  lands,  24. 
Harlem      (N.     Y.),      Wadleigh      school 

buildings,  343. 
Harlem    River,    38;     bridge,     26,     28; 

sewage  emptied  into,   98,   99 ;    shore 

improvement,  277,  278. 
Harris,  N.  W.,  endowment,   206. 
Harrisburg    (Pa.),   concrete   bridge,    29; 

city  planning,  329. 
Harrison,  Bertram,  manager  of  theater, 

319- 

Harrison,  Carter  H.,  Chicago  mayor, 
313- 

Hartford  (Conn.),  exceptional  children, 
clinics  for,  190;  capitol  grounds,  277; 
value  of  streets,  294 ;  city  plan,  346 ; 
city  center,  346;  municipal  plan 
commission,  350. 

Hart's  Island,   Reformatory  on,    162. 

Haverhill  (Mass.),  water  conservation, 
87. 

Health,  public  improvement,  8,  10,  119, 
254;  civic,  10;  hindrance  to,  98; 
public,  reforms,  107-129;  public, 
organization,  130;  division  of  health, 
165 ;  Rochester,  256 ;  New  York 
Board  of  Health,  301 :  communal 
wants,  360;  Chattanooga  Commis- 
sioner of  Health,  385 ;  The  City's 
Life,  399.  See  also  Diseases,  Hospitals, 
Medical  Inspection,  Sanitation,  and 
the  several  cities. 

Healy,  WilUam,  Juvenile  Psychopathic 
Institute,   157,   158. 

Heating,  municipal,  371. 

Heinroth,  Charles,  organist,  315. 

Helena  (Mont.),  Home  School,  193. 

Hennessey  (Okla.),  municipal  theater, 
318. 

Hewitt,  Abram,  mayor  of  New  York, 
298. 

Hibbing  (Minn.),  High  School,  mural 
paintings,  344. 

Hickson,  William  J.,  psychopathic  in- 
stitute, 158. 

Hill,  James  B.,  cited,  32. 

Hoboken  (N.  Y.),  tunnels  under,  16. 

Holyoke  (Mass.),  municipal  gas  plants, 
67,  68;    electricity,  cost,  68. 

Hooker,  George  E.,  rapid  transit,  41. 

Hoquiam    (Wash.),    waste  disposal,    81. 

Hospitals,  municipal,  120,  121;  tu- 
berculosis, 122-124;  for  infectious 
diseases,  124,   125. 


Houghton     (Mich.),     civics,     teaching, 

1 86. 
Housing,    improvement,    109-111.      See 

also  Tenements. 
Houston    (Tex.),    government    control, 

22;    channels,    22;    municipal  docks, 

22 ;     traffic,    police    regulation,    143 ; 

auditorium,  317;    constitutional  home 

rule,  367. 
Houston   Municipal    Band,    at    Denver, 

315- 
Howell,  R.  B.,  Omaha  engineer,  363. 
Hudson  (N.  Y.),  water  supply,  88. 
Hudson  River,  26,  277 ;    tunnels  under, 

16,  90,  99;    bridge  across,  27;    banks, 

278;    protection  of  channels,  332. 
Hull   House,    playground   movement   in 

Chicago,  302. 
Huntington,  Collis  P.,  cited,  32. 
Hurd,  Harvey  B.,  cited,  151. 
Hygiene.    See  Education  and  Health. 

Illinois,  smoke  investigation,  85 ;  ju- 
venile courts,  151 ;  employment 
bureaus,  174;  education,  254;  defini- 
tion of  business  areas,  332. 

Immigration,  Americanization  of  immi- 
grants, 254;  social  centers,  260; 
citizenship  centers,  265  ;  Social  Center 
Pageant,  266. 

Immorality,  institutions  of,  2,  312;  in 
city,  4;    investigation  needed,  7. 

Independence,  in  country,  i. 

Independence  (Kan.),  unemployment, 
173- 

India,  plague  in,  109. 

Indiana,  pollution  of  lake  water,  96 ; 
laws  regulating  continuation  schools, 
223;   art  expositions,  263. 

Indianapolis  (Ind.),  pavements,  60; 
gas  companies,  65,  66;  public  mar- 
ket, 112,  113;  poUce  system,  139; 
traffic  regulation,  143  ;  juvenile  courts, 
151 ;  court  fines,  161 ;  Manual  Train- 
ing High  School,  219;  parks,  283; 
height  of  buildings,  334. 

Industrial    conditions,    107. 

Industrial    efficiency,    increase    of,    5. 

Industrial  revolution,  relation  of  cities 
to,   I. 

Industry,  education  for,  212,  215; 
dressmaking,  218,  222;  millinery, 
218,  222;  traditions,  222;  appren- 
tices, 223,  224;  industrial  districts, 
331.    See  also  Business. 


5o8 


INDEX 


Infants,     mortality,     114,     115;      care, 

114;    welfare,   115,   116;    nursery  for 

tubercular,    122;     books    concerning, 

246. 
Initiative,     Referendum     and      Recall, 

movement  for,  3S4,  387,  388. 
Insurance,  necessity  of  heavy  premiums, 

134- 
Intemperance.     See  Alcohol. 
Interdependence,  in  cities,  i. 
Iowa,     subsoil     favorable     to     concrete 

paving,   50;    social  evil,   148;    public 

utilities  in,  367 ;  initiative,  referendum 

and  recall,  384. 
Irish,  in  Boston,  393. 
Irrigation    works,    municipal    ownership 

of,  372. 
Italians,     in    America,     257.     See    also 

Immigration. 
Ithaca  (N.  Y.),  municipal  hospital,  120, 

121. 
Ittner,  W.  B.,  architect,  343,  344. 

Jacksonville  (Fla.),  electricity,  69. 

Jacobs,  Mira  Straus,  music  collection, 
237- 

Jamaica  Plain  (N.  Y.),  mentioned, 
251. 

Japanese  tea  garden.  Golden  Gate  Park, 
San  Francisco,   291. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  predecessor  of  city 
planners,  13,  351. 

Jersey  City  (N.  J.),  paving,  57 ;  death 
rate,  107 ;  recreation  in  West  Side 
Park,  290;  city  plan  commission, 
356,  357- 

Jitneys.    See  Transportation. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  at  Balti- 
more, 241. 

Johnson,  Tom,  Cleveland  mayor  cited, 
46,  49,  163,  361,  378,  390;  fares 
cheapened  by,  50,  51  ;  franchises, 
51 ;    competition,   51 ;    memorial,   51. 

Johnston,  Mrs.  Ella  Bond,  art  exhibi- 
tion, 262,  263. 

Joliet  (111.),  tunnel,  95 ;  aqueduct, 
96. 

Jones,  Sam,  dted,  46. 

Jones,  Mr. ,  elimination  of  fran- 
chises, 48,  49;    police  system,   139. 

Justice.    See  Courts. 

Juvenile  Courts.     See  Courts. 

Kalamazoo  (Mich.),  kindergartens,  178. 
Kansas,    description,    i ;     viaduct,    29 ; 


fire  prevention,  135;  Public  Welfare 
work,  166. 

Kansas  City  (Kan.),  electricity,  cheap- 
ness of,  69. 

Kansas  City  (Mo.),  Board  of  Public 
Welfare,  11,  166-169,  261,  312; 
parks,  282 ;  viaduct,  29 ;  paving, 
56,  61;  streets,  56,  59,  354;  "Little 
Mother  leagues,"  115;  public  nurses, 
1 16;  medical  school  inspection,  116; 
municipal  hospital,  121;  platoon 
system,  fire  department,  132 ;  court 
fines,  161 ;  prisoners,  161 ;  parole 
system,  161 ;  unemployed,  169;  civics, 
teaching  of,  186;  Ubrary  and  school 
cooperation,  244 ;  social  centers, 
260;  Parent  Teachers'  Association, 
261 ;  Mothers'  Congress,  261 ;  uni- 
versity, 264;  terminal,  337;  city 
survey,  356 ;  land  values,  358 ; 
municipal  trading,  371;  "home  rule" 
charter,  386;  penalization  of  non- 
voter,  389. 

Kaw  River,  viaduct,  29. 

Kellogg,  Kate  S.,  civics,  teaching  of, 
184,  185. 

Kenilworth  (111.),  use  of  school  build- 
ings, 11;  teaching  of  hygiene,  189; 
High  School  buildings,  344. 

Kennedy,  J.  Wilmer,  teaching  of  civics, 
184. 

Kent,  William,  cited,  302. 

Key,  Allen,  cited,  151. 

Kindergarten  College,  at  Pittsburgh, 
248. 

Kindergartens.    See  Education. 

Kingsley,  Sherman  C,  cited,  114. 

Knoxville  (Tenn.),  water  supply,  88. 

Koch,  Caspar  P.,  organist,  315. 

Kohler,  Chief,  humanizing  of  police 
system,  139. 

Kotschmar,   Hermaim,   musician,   314. 

Labor,  employees,  weakness,  3;  em- 
ployees, strike,  51 ;  employees,  wages, 
88;  motormen  and  conductors,  earn- 
ings, 54;  drivers  for  garbage  collec- 
tion, 82 ;  surpliis  force  of  men  for 
snow  removal,  83,  84;  employment, 
increase,  no;  unemployment,  cause, 
no;  police,  division  of  work,  137, 
138;  police,  hours,  142;  employers 
improve  workplaces,  168;  alien  labor, 
regulation,  174.  See  also  Employ- 
ment Bureaus. 


INDEX 


509 


La  Crosse  (Wis.),  public  drinking  foun- 
tains, 104 ;  municipal  employment 
office,   175. 

Lake  Michigan,  track  elevation  along 
shore,  18. 

Lamb,   Charles  R.,  decorator,  341. 

Lamb,    F.    S.,    decorator,    341. 

Lamb,  Mrs.  F.  S.,  decorator,  341. 

Land  values,  in  various  cities,  358. 

Landscape  gardening,  281 ;  at  Rochester, 
330. 

Lansing  (Mich.),  drinking  fountains,  10, 
104 ;  civic  center,  345 ;  capital  of 
State,  365 ;  electric  lighting  plant, 
365. 

Laundries.     See  Public  Laimdries. 

Lawrence  (Mass.),  Massachusetts  Ex- 
periment Stations,  sewage  disposal, 
98;  Giovannitti,  arrest,  158,  159; 
city  survey,  Russell  Sage  Fund,  356. 

League  Island  Park,  Navy  Yard  on,  21. 

League  of  Civic  Clubs  at  Rochester,  256. 

Leavenworth  (Kan.),  home  work,  credit 
for,  198. 

Lectures,  bureau  of,  165;  in  libraries, 
247;  in  art  museums,  249;  free, 
252-254,  259;  Chicago  stereopticon, 
304- 

Lee,  Joseph,  father  of  the  playground 
movement  in  Massachusetts,  306. 

Legislative  reference  departments.  See 
Libraries. 

Legler,  Henry  E.,  Chicago  librarian, 
231. 

Leipziger,  Henry  M.,  lecturer,  252. 

L'Enfant,  Pierre  Charles,  plan  for 
capitol,  13,  329;  plan  for  park,  14; 
predecessor  of  American  city  planners, 
351- 

Lenox  (Mass.),  library,  236. 

Lenox  Library,  at  New  York,  236,  341. 

Lewis,  William  D.,  cited,  213. 

Lexington  (Ky.),  public  kindergartens, 
177,  178. 

Libraries,  6 ;  beauty,  1 1 ;  need  of 
reform,  8;  public,  223-251;  legis- 
lation for,  228;  state  aid,  228,  229; 
open  shelf  plan,  229-231 ;  of  Congress, 
230;  technology  departments,  231; 
information  given  in  Bates  Hall, 
Boston,  231;  for  the  blind,  233; 
periodicals,  233 ;  children's  rooms, 
233-235;  circulation,  235-238;  Astor, 
Lenox  and  Tilden  libraries,  236,  341 ; 
music  collection,  236,  237 ;   art  collec- 


tions, 237 ;  branch  libraries,  238 ; 
traveling  libraries,  239;  municipal 
reference  libraries,  240-  242  ;  library 
and  school  cooperation,  242-245; 
Queensborough  library,  246 ;  pub- 
licity, 245-247;  lantern  slides,  246; 
a  missionary  enterprise,  246;  libra- 
rians, 247,  248;  splendid  service  of 
librarians,  374;  organization,  247, 
248 ;  training  schools,  248 ;  in  Roch- 
ester social  center,  257 ;  New  York 
recreation  centers,  267  ;  used  as  social 
centers,  269;  J.  J.  Hill  reference 
library,  St.  Paul,  337 ;  buildicgs, 
340. 

Lighting  systems.  See  Electricity  and 
Gas. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  picture  of,  266; 
statues,  339. 

Lindsey,  Ben,  judge  of  juvenile  courts, 
152,  388. 

Little  Rock  (Ark.),  school  savings  banks, 
205 ;    schoolhouses,  345. 

Loans,  Welfare  Loan  Agency,  168. 

London   (England),  sludge  disposal,  97. 

Long  Island  City  (N.  Y.),  tuimels  under, 
16;  length,  16;  Railway,  16,  27; 
protection  by  trunk  sewers,  99 ;  school 
savings  banks,  205. 

Los  Angeles  (Cal.),  situation,  9;  white 
ways,  10,  71,  72;  water  supply,  10, 
88,  89 ;  harbor  improvements,  23 ; 
subway  construction,  36 ;  paving, 
61 ;  overhead  wires,  62 ;  arc  lights, 
70;  slaughter  houses,  113;  public 
nurses,  116;  policewomen,  140,  141; 
saloons,  regulation,  146;  Public  De- 
fender, 150,  158-160;  Municipal 
Charities  Commission,  164;  employ- 
ment bureau,  free,  174;  domestic 
science  for  elementary  grades,  181 ; 
exceptional  children,  clinics  for,  190; 
defective  children,  treatment,  191 ; 
school  gardens,  196,  197 ;  home 
gardens,  196,  197 ;  education  in, 
213;  marine  high  school  at  San 
Pedro,  220;  schoolhouses  used  as 
polling  places,  266;  campers  en- 
couraged in  the  rural  parks,  291 ; 
tree  planting  by  assessment,  293 ; 
recreative  centers,  305,  306;  City 
Playground  Association,  305 ;  music, 
306;  camping,  311;  city  planning, 
330;  definition  of  business  areas, 
331 ;     schoolhouses    on    the    Mexico 


5IO 


INDEX 


patio  plan,  345 ;  residential  areas, 
348 ;  street  obstructions,  355  ;  women 
members  of  municipal  art  commission, 
355 ;  waterworks,  363 ;  municipal 
trading,  370;  organic  home  rule, 
394;      contrasted     with     Galveston, 

394- 
Los  .\ngeles  River,  mentioned,  89. 
Louisiana,     water    fronts,     24 ;      moral 

training  in  schools,  187. 
Louisiana    Purchase    Exposition    at    St. 

Louis,  324,  325. 
Louisville  (Ky.),  smoke  abatement,  85 ; 

filtration    of    water,    92 ;     municipal 

hospital,     121;      civic     rooms,     232; 

instructive     motion     pictures,      264 ; 

boulevards,    277 ;     public   supervision 

of  trees,  293. 
Lowell  (Mass.),  death  rate  comparison, 

107. 
Lyman,  Edward  H.  R.,  endows  theater 

at  Northampton,  Mass.,  319. 
Lyman,  Frank,  mentioned,  319. 
Lynchburg  (Va.),  city  planning,  330. 
Lynn    (Mass.),   laborers  given   work   in 

forest,   173;    magnificent  woods,   287, 

288 ;  swimming,  309 ;  business  dis- 
tricts, 332  ;    mud  flats,  332. 

Madarlane,  Will  C,  organist,  314. 

Mackaye,  Percy,  playwright,  265,  325. 

McKim,  monument  of,  340. 

McKim,  Mead  and  White,  architects, 
340. 

Macon  (Ga.),  schoolhouses,  342. 

Madison  (Wis.),  driveways,  12,  279; 
capitol  grounds,  277 ;  land  values, 
358. 

Maeterlinck,  Maurice,  poet,  319. 

Mall,  The.     See  Washington. 

Manchester  (N.  H.),  paving,  57. 

Manhattan  (N.  Y.),  trolley  wires,  9,  72; 
poles,  10;  railway  station,  15;  tun- 
nels, 16;  approach,  26;  bridge,  27, 
36,  37;  transportation,  37,  39;  Man- 
hattan Company,  39;  tyranny  of 
travel,  40;  water  supply,  90;  sewage, 
99;  death  rate,  107,  loS;  tenements, 
no;  civics,  teaching  of,  187;  school 
lunches,  192 ;  motion  picture  theater, 
264;  parks,  276;  driveways,  278; 
schools  and  playgrounds,  299;  Park 
Commission,  300;  streets  used  as 
playgrounds,  301 ;  municipal  trading, 
370.     See  also  New  York  City. 


Manhattan  Trade  School,  described,  217 

Manual  Training.     See  Education. 

Markets,  municipal,  111-113. 

Marriage,  eugenics,  6. 

Maryland,  laws  regulating  land  purchase, 
358. 

Mason  City  (la.),  paving,  59. 

Massachusetts,  Rapid  Transit  Commis- 
sion, 33 ;  water,  87 ;  skyscrapers, 
in;  tenements,  in;  reporting  of 
births,  116;  medical  inspection  of 
schools,  117;  tuberculosis,  124;  police 
women,  140;  saloons,  146;  juvenile 
probation,  151;  court  fines,  161; 
employment  bureaus,  174;  art  in- 
struction, 182;  education,  216;  trade 
schools,  218;  laws  regulating  con- 
tinuation schools,  223;  pubhc  libraries, 
228,  229,  236;  reservations,  287; 
playground  movement,  306,  307; 
municipal  land  purchase,  358;  public 
utilities,  367  ;  franchises,  367  ;  finance 
commission,  384 ;  interference  of  state 
in  local  affairs,  393. 

Mattapan,  municipal  hospital  for  con- 
sumptives, 123. 

Meadville  (Pa.),  water  conservation,  87. 

Meder,  Mrs.  Leonora  Z.,  Chicago  Mu- 
nicipal Dance,  313. 

Medford  (Mass.),  taxation  of  bill- 
boards, 349. 

Medical  inspection,  school  inspectors, 
116;  public  schools,  116— 118,  201; 
record  systems,  118;  school  nurses, 
118,  119;  dental  cUnics,  119,  120. 
See  also  Diseases,  Health,  Sanitation, 
and  the  several  cities. 

Memphis  (Tenn.),  water  fronts,  23; 
school  gardens,  197 ;  libraries,  used 
as  social  centers,  269;    parks,  283. 

Menomonie  (Wis.),  swimming  pool,  11; 
city  agricultural  school,  197 ;  school- 
houses,  342. 

Merchants  and  Manufacturers  Associ<>- 
tion,  at  Baltimore,  241. 

Meriden  (Conn.),  town  hall,  340. 

Metropohtan  Museum,  New  York,  249. 

Mexicans,  as  laborers,   174. 

Michigan,  work  of  Hazen  Pingree,  47; 
civics,  teaching  of,  186;  definition 
of  business  areas,  332;  efiEete  con- 
stitution, 365,  366. 

Milk,  inspection,  113-115;  milk  stations, 
113-116. 

Millinery.    See  Industry. 


INDEX 


S" 


Milwaukee  (Wis.),  swimming  pools,  lo; 
viaducts,  29 ;  municipal  conduits,  63  ; 
waste  collection,  77,  79;  water,  87; 
"Little  Mother  Leagues,"  115;  saloon 
regulation,  146;  employment,  174, 
175;  kindergartens,  178;  public 
library,  231,  236;  art  museum,  250; 
free  lectures,  253 ;  social  centers, 
260 ;  boulevards,  277 ;  municipal 
dances,  312;  municipal  music,  315; 
public  decorations,  355. 

Ministers  Association,  at  Rochester,  256. 

Minneapolis  (Minn.),  water  fronts,  23 ; 
paving,  60 ;  waste  disposal,  80 ;  water 
consumption,  88;  pubHc  comfort 
station,  103,  104 ;  death  rate,  107 ; 
medical  inspection,  119;  patrolmen, 
136,  137;  music  in  schools,  183,  184; 
boulevards,  278,  279;  city  planning, 
329;  industrial  and  residential  dis- 
tricts, 331 ;  municipal  union  station, 
337;  architecture,  338;  street  ob- 
structions, 355. 

Minnesota,  industrial  districts,  331 ; 
railway  franchises,  367. 

Minnetonka   Lake,   in   Minnesota,    278. 

Mint.     See  United  States  Mint. 

Mississippi  River,  irrigation,  23 ;  fur- 
nishes water  supply,  104;  parkways, 
278;    city  planning,  329. 

Missouri,  viaduct,  29;  public  utilities, 
367  ;    franchises  in,  367. 

Missouri   River,   Omaha   water   supply, 

364- 

Mobile  (Ala.),  water  fronts,  23 ;  shell 
roads,  277. 

Moline  (la.),  river  shipping,  23. 

Monopohes,  regulation  of,  390. 

Monroe  (La.),  salt  water  swimming 
pools,    309;     municipal   railway,    371. 

Montclair  (N.  J.),  open  air  school,  201. 

Montessori  method,  used  in  Lexington, 
Kentucky,  178. 

Montgomery  (Ala.),  slaughter  houses, 
113- 

Monuments,  public,  104;  Shaw  Me- 
morial, Boston,  339;  Washington, 
351.  See  also  Architecture,  Art,  and 
Fountains. 

Moore,  Mrs.  J.  P.,  mentioned,  270. 

Moral   training.     See  Education. 

Morality,  in  cities,  4;  improvement  of, 
147,  148. 

Morris,  WiUiam,  cited,  293. 

Mosquitoes,  campaign  against,  127,  128. 


Mothers   Clubs.     See  Social   Centers. 

Mothers'  Congress,  at  Kansas  City, 
261. 

Moths,  extermination  of,  294. 

Motion  Pictures,  treated,  263-265 ;  in- 
vestigation, 67;  in  hospitals,  123; 
educational,  135,  264,  318;  con- 
trolled by  Pu])lic  Welfare  Board,  167, 
168;  university  of  Wisconsin,  264, 
of  Kansas,  264;  Drama  League  of 
Minneapolis,  264 ;  in  playgrounds, 
265;  improvement  of,  318;  closed  on 
Sunday,  321. 

Motors,  in  parks,  30 ;  omnibuses,  37 ; 
paving,  61 ;  increased  use,  73,  74, 
130,  131 ;  trucks,  78,  141 ;  cycles, 
141 ;  percentage  of  accidents,  143 ; 
Speeders,  municipal  courts,  150.  See 
also  Transportation. 

Mount  Rainier,  mentioned,  279. 

Mount  Rubidoux  Pilgrimage,  323. 

Mount  Vernon  (N.  Y.),  street  obstruc- 
tions, 355. 

Mountain  cities,  280. 

Mountain  drives.     See  Streets. 

Moving  Pictures.     See  Motion  Pictures. 

Muckrakers,  in  cities,  2. 

Mulberry  Bend  Park,  in  New  York 
City,  298,  299. 

Municipal  aid.  See  Municipal  Owner- 
ship. 

Municipal  Courts.     See  Courts. 

Municipal  Lodging  Houses.  See 
Charity. 

Municipal  Ownership,  of  railway  ter- 
minals, 18;  effects  of,  2,  20,  31,  34, 
66,  67,  71;  of  railways,  30-54;  lack 
of,  32  ;  transportation,  36,  43 ;  slums, 
38;  difficulties,  50,  53,  54;  aid  to 
parks,  286 ;  libraries,  240-242 ;  Den- 
ver land,  290 ;  vandaUsm,  292 ; 
forestry,  292-295 ;  Chicago  olav- 
grounds,  302;  canals,  372;  municipal 
music,  314-316;  auditoriums,  316, 
317;  theaters,  318-320;  municipaliza- 
tion of  activities,  359-360;  business, 
360,  363 ;  in  Omaha,  363-365 ; 
Michigan,  365,  366;  elasticity,  367, 
368;  finance,  368,  369;  trading,  369- 
372;  private  initiative,  372,  373; 
unremunerative  activities,  374 ;  munic- 
ipal immorality,  374,  375;  sugges- 
tions for  reform,  397-401 . 

Municipal  program,  suggestions,  397- 
401. 


512 


INDEX 


Municipal      reference      libraries.      See 

Libraries. 
Municipal  Servants,  labors  of,  266,  267, 

304- 
Municipal   Voters'   League,    mentioned, 

389. 
Murphysboro     (111.),     fire     prevention, 

US- 
Museums,  in  cities,  6;  cooperation, 
205,  206 ;  expositions,  246 ;  treated, 
249-251;  scientific,  249;  children's, 
250,  251;  appreciation  of,  254; 
Toledo,  St.  Louis,  Bufialo,  338; 
Washington  Irving  High  School, 
N.  Y.,  342. 
Music,  and  public  Hbraries,  236;  Roch- 
ester social  center,  257,  259,  262 ; 
chamber  concerts,  Boston,  262 ;  com- 
munity chorus,  262 ;  in  New  York 
recreation  centers,  268;  gramophone 
concerts,  269;  Chicago  playgrounds, 
304 ;  Los  Angeles  clubs,  305 ;  munic- 
ipal, 314-316;  free  Sunday  concerts, 
320;  Cincinnati  biennial  festivals, 
321.  See  also  Education. 
Muskegon  (Mich.),  dental  clinics  under 
Board  of  Education,  120. 

Nantucket  Island,  Common,  287. 
Nashua  River,   water  supply,  inaease, 

91. 
Nashville  (Tenn.),  jitneys,  31 ;  slaughter 

houses,     113;      milk    stations,     115; 

capitol  grounds,   277;    streets,  335. 
Natural  beauty,  preservation,  285. 
Natural  History   Museum,   New  York, 

250. 
Navigation,   95,   96;    sewage  interferes 

with,  98. 
NeiUsville  (Wis.),  civic  secretaries,  266. 
Nesbitt,   Charles  T.,   campaign  against 

flies,  126. 
New     Bedford     (Mass.),     paving,     61 ; 

water  conservation,  87. 
New  Britain  (Conn.),  industrial  school 

at,  217. 
New  England,  oil,  use,  74;    farms,  99; 

parks,  271 ;    faithless  to  her  heritage, 

276;  town  halls,  316;  library  founders, 

228. 
New   Hampshire,    regulation   of   public 

libraries,  228,  229. 
New  Hampton  Farms  Colony,  162. 
New  Haven  (Conn.),  elms,   10;    death 

rate  comparison,   108;    kindergartens. 


178;  The  Green,  275;   public  decora- 
tions, 355. 

New  Jersey,  tunnels,  length,  16;  mos- 
quito campaign,  127;  defective 
children,  191 ;  forestry  department, 
293;     taxation   of    billboards,    349. 

New  Orleans  (La.),  sewerage  systems, 
10,  100,  loi ;  public  markets,  10,  in, 
113;  water  fronts,  22,  24-26;  dock 
service,  24;  ports,  24;  belt  railroad, 
25 ;  paved  streets,  56 ;  filtration  of 
water,  92 ;  rats,  protection  from 
129;  poHce  protection,  cost,  136; 
railway  tracks  laid  in  boulevards, 
279;  Mardi  Gras,  321 ;  city  planning, 
328;  municipal  trading,  370;  munic- 
ipal ownership  of  sugar  sheds,  372; 
belt  railway,  372. 

New  York  City  (N.  Y.),  location,  9 ; 
density  of  population,  298;  conges- 
tion of,  3,  37 ;  transportation,  16,  26, 
30-32,  36,  39,  40,  44,  52,  352;  sub- 
ways, 10,  36-38;  bridges,  26-28,  39, 
339;  regulation  of  railways,  18,  36- 
40;  franchises,  47,  50,  52,  369;  grade 
crossing  accidents,  18;  terminals, 
15-18,  32;  streets,  17,  56,  334,  355; 
paving,  55-58,  60,  61 ;  boroughs, 
16,  392;  water  front,  22,  332,  353; 
conduits,  63,  64;  lighting  system, 
65-67,  72;  street  cleaning,  74-76; 
waste  disposal,  78,  81-84,  97;  fire 
system,  10,  131-136,  144;  water 
supply,  89-91,  369;  sewage  disposal, 
97-99;  sanitary  area,  96;  pubUc 
comfort  stations,  10,  103,  104;  death 
rate,  107-109;  housing,  lo,  109,  no; 
tenement  regulation,  109-111,  123; 
public  markets,  in;  milk  stations, 
116;  "Little  Mother  Leagues,"  115; 
medical  school  inspection,  117,  118; 
dental  clinics,  120;  tubercular  in- 
crease, 123;  police  system,  136,  138, 
142,  145;  courts,  151,  152,  156,  157, 
161;  paroles,  162;  widows'  pensions, 
169;  municipal  lodging  houses,  170- 
172;  unemployment  problem,  173, 
174;  educational  matters,  10,  181, 
182,  187,  189,  191,  197,  199.  200,  202- 
204,  208-210,  217,  226,  267,  323; 
libraries,  233,  236,  239,  242,  246, 
247 ;  university,  225 ;  vocational 
bureau,  224;  museums,  206,  250; 
art  institute,  249;  free  lectures,  252, 
253.   258;    recreation,   262,    264,   265, 


INDEX 


513 


267-269,  315,  323;  an  art  center, 
262,  354;  a  dramatic  center,  319; 
parks,  265,  271,  274,  276,  289,  291, 
292,  294,  298,  300;  boulevards,  277, 
278 ;  playgrounds,  297-302 ;  swim- 
ming beach,  309;  public  baths,  310, 
311;  Christmas  in,  322;  New  Year's, 
321 ;  architecture,  334,  338-340,  343  ; 
city  planning,  351,  352;  billboards, 
349 ;  civic  centers,  347 ;  municipal 
investment,  370;  debt  limit,  300; 
trading  enterprises,  372 ;  adminis- 
tration, 379,  380 ;  bureau  of  municipal 
research,  380. 

New  York  State,  public  libraries,  228, 
229;  baths,  310;  utilities,  367; 
franchises,  367 ;  regulates  height  of 
buildings,  334;  purchases  municipal 
land,  358. 

Newark  (N.  J.),  waste  collection,  76; 
death  rate,  decrease,  107 ;  milk 
transportation,  113;  contagious  dis- 
eases, 117;  mosquito  campaign, 
127;  civics,  teaching,  184;  school 
days,  lengthening,  199;  vacation 
school,  199;  school,  all-year,  200, 
206;  public  library,  231,  232,  237, 
238,  245 ;  meetings  in  public  library, 
247;  museum,  250;  library  a  social 
center,  269 ;  public  square,  288 ;  fores- 
try department,  293 ;  Shade  Tree 
Commission,  294,  295 ;  municipal 
advertisement,  331 ;  streets,  335 ; 
canals,  336. 

Newark  (O.),  canals,  336. 

Newarker,  The,  mentioned,   238. 

Newbury,  uses  Newburyport  library, 
229. 

Newburyport  (Mass.),  library,  229. 

Newton  (Mass.),  vacation  school,  199; 
city  heating,  371. 

Newton,  Isaac,  cited,  88. 

North  Dakota,  moral  training  in  schools, 
188;  Sunday  observance,  320;  public 
utilities,  367;    franchises,  367. 

North  River,   sewage  emptied  into,  q8. 

Northampton  (Mass.),  Players,  319; 
municipal  theater,  319,  320;  municipal 
ownership  of  theater,  372. 

Norwich  (Conn.),  municipal  lighting 
plant,  68. 

Nurses,  work  in  child  welfare  station, 
II,  lis;  public  increase,  115;  benefit, 
116;  school,  need  for,  118,  119; 
dental  clinics,  assistance  in,  120. 


Oak  Cliff,  suburb  of  Dallas,  28. 

Oakland  (Cal.),  docks,  22;  belt  railway, 
22;  jitneys,  31;  health  insf)ection, 
118,  119;  Public  Safety  Department, 
140;  employment,  174;  business  dis- 
tricts, 332. 

Ogden  (Cal.),  jitneys,  31;  social  evil, 
147. 

Ohio,  urban  transportation,  48;  laws, 
si;  paving,  59;  gas,  66;  municipal 
universities,  227;  constitutional  con- 
vention, 2S9;  land  purchase,  358; 
home  rule  law,  378. 

Oil,  necessary  for  pavements,  60,  61,  74. 

Oklahoma,  public  defender,  159. 

Oklahoma  City  (Okla.),  street  paving, 
10;  jitneys,  31  ;  parks,  283. 

Olmsted  Brothers,  architects,  planned 
mountain  roads,  280;  Golden  Gate 
Park,  281 ;  Spokane  parks,  282 ; 
Baltimore  parks,  284. 

Omaha  (Neb.),  fire  department,  platoon 
system,  132 ;  high  schools  of  com- 
merce, 219;  instructive  motion  pic- 
tures, 264 ;  parks,  282 ;  business  and 
municipal  ownership,  363-36s- 

Orange  (N.  J.),  public  squares,  288. 

Orchestras.     See  Music. 

Oregon,  homework  for  schools,  198; 
woman's  suffrage  and  the  liquor  ques- 
tion, 388. 

Ornamental  lighting.  See  Electricity 
and  Gas. 

Oshkosh  (Wis.),  municipal  employment 
office,  17s. 

Osier,  Dr.  William,  cited,  120. 

Osseo  (Wis.),  civic  secretaries,  266. 

Outdoor  Recreation  League,  New  Y'^ork, 
300. 

Owens  River,  mentioned,  89. 

Pacific  Coast,  jitney  originated,  31. 

Pageants,  324-325 ;  at  Weymouth, 
Mass.,  322;  American  Association, 
324;    at  St.  Louis,  324. 

Panama,  federal  control,  18  ;  gateway  to, 
2S ;    governmental  action  in,  368. 

Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  mentioned, 
2S.  54.  317- 

Parent-Teachers'  Association,  at  Kan- 
sas City,  261. 

Paris  (France),  fortifications,  loi. 

Paris  (Tex.),  slaughter  houses,  113. 

Parker,  George  A.,  Superintendent  of 
Hartford  parks,  294. 


514 


INDEX 


Parkersburg  (W.  Va.),  hygienic  teaching, 
189. 

Parks,  need  of,  8 ;  improvement,  1 2  ; 
shrubs  and  trees,  102 ;  public  comfort 
stations  in,  103 ;  Fairmount  Park,  20, 
21,  29;  treated,  271-295;  New  Eng- 
land, 271;  Chicago  system,  272-275; 
289;  small  parks  and  squares,  275, 
277 ;  parkways  and  boulevards,  277- 
279;  outer  parks,  280-281;  park  sys- 
tems, 281-283  ;  park  commissions,  273, 
274,  275,  282,  285,  302,  303,  304; 
Baltimore,  283,  284 ;  Washington,  284, 
285 ;  Boston,  285-288 ;  rural  parks, 
288,  290 ;  recreation,  290-292 ;  New- 
ark, 294,  295  ;  Municipal  Art  Society, 
284 ;  expenditure  on  parks,  288 ; 
athletic  field  in  Prospect  Park,  Brook- 
l>Ti,  290;  Mulberry  Bend  Park,  New 
York,  298,  299;  recreation,  290-292. 
See  also  the  several  cities. 

Parkways.    See  Streets. 

Parsons,  Frank,  vocational  education, 
224. 

Pasadena  (Cal.),  concrete  bridges,  29; 
municipal  electric  plant,  69,  70,  362 ; 
arc  lights,  70 ;  sewage  disposal,  97,  loi, 
102;  medical  statistics,  118;  records, 
118;  kindergartens,  178;  Rose  Car- 
nival, 321;  city  planning,  330;  mu- 
nicipal trading,  370. 

Passaic  (N.  J.),  public  library,  233  ;  edu- 
cational motion  picture  films,  318. 

Patterson,  John  H.,  school  gardens,  196. 

Paving.     See  Streets. 

Pawtucket  (R.  I.),  oil  used  for  streets, 

74- 

Peabody,  Elizabeth,  kindergarten  work, 
177. 

Peale,  Rembrandt,  supervision  of  draw- 
ing, 181,  182. 

Peck,  Miss  Medella  L.,  municipal  theater, 

319- 

Penn,  William,  cited,  21,  108;  street  sys- 
tem, 52 ;  plan  of  Philadelphia,  275,  329, 
330,  350. 

Penn  Yan  (N.  Y.),  conduit  building,  63. 

Pennsylvania,  concrete  bridges,  29; 
Eastern  Penitentiary,  43 ;  court  fines 
by  installment,  161 ;  moral  training 
in  schools,  188;  museum  cooperation, 
205,  206;  land  values,  358;  Supreme 
Court,  358;  public  utilities,  367; 
franchises,  367;  "ripper"  bills,  389; 
Railway  terminal,  341. 


Pensions,  for  pxjlicemen,  136;  for 
mothers,  154;  for  widows,  164; 
Widows'  Pension  Bureau  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, 169,  170. 

People's  Forums,  formation  of,  254. 

People's  Institute,  New  York,  men- 
tioned, 268. 

Perkins,  D.  H.,  school  architect  of  Chi- 
cago, 344. 

Perkins,  Fellows,  and  Hamilton,  archi- 
tects, 339,  344. 

Perry,  Clarence,  Arthur,  quoted,  258. 

Philadelphia  (Pa.),  lighting  system,  10, 
65-67,  362,  363 ;  grade-crossing  acci- 
dents, 18;  track  elevation,  20,  21 ;  sub- 
ways, 21,  36;  water  front,  22;  sub- 
urb, 45  ;  transit  companies,  32,  44-46; 
franchises,  44,  45,  50,  375;  fares,  50; 
paving,  55-58;  right  of  streets,  61; 
municipal  conduits,  63 ;  waste  col- 
lection, 76,  77  ;  smoke  abatement,  85  ; 
water  consumption,  87,  92  ;  filtration, 
93  ;  public  laundries,  105  ;  death  rate, 
108;  medical  school  inspection,  117; 
school  nurses,  118;  dental  clinics,  120; 
campaign  against  pests,  128,  129; 
platoon  police  system,  138;  police 
regulate  traffic,  141,  142  ;  police  school, 
145;  fire  department,  144;  educa- 
tional affairs,  177,  181,  182,  187,  192, 
194,  195,  197,  202;  libraries,  233,  236; 
museums,  205,  206,  249,  250;  parks, 
271,  280,  281,  292  ;  festivals,  321 ;  citi- 
zenship centers,  265  ;  court  of  domestic 
relations,  155;  unemployment  prob- 
lem, 173;  city  planning,  275,  329,  350, 
351;  streets  and  parkways,  21,  334, 
335.  3SS ;  architecture,  338;  philan- 
thropy, 342  ;  government,  377,  392  ; 
railway  influence,  396. 

Philanthropy.     See  Charity. 

Philippines,  political  annexation,  16. 

Phillips,  J.  H.,  moral  training,  187. 

Physical  examination.  See  Children  and 
Medical  Inspection. 

Picnics,  in  Chicago  parks,  291. 

Piers,  New  York  recreation,  301,  302. 
See  also  Harbors. 

Pinckney,  Judge,  juvenile  courts,   152, 

153- 

Pinero,  Arthur  W.,  dramatist,  319. 

Pingree,  Hazen,  cited,  46;  three  cent 
fare,  46 ;  competition  in  urban  trans- 
portation, 46 ;  municipal  ownership, 
46,  47 ;   governor,  47 ;    franchises,  47. 


INDEX 


515 


Pittsburgh  (Pa.),  favorably  located,  9; 
libraries,  11 ;  children's  libraries,  324; 
public  library,  236;  library  publicity, 
246,  247 ;  Training  School  for  Chil- 
dren's librarians,  248;  municipal  sub- 
way, 36;  transportation  problem,  52; 
street  paving,  56-58;  waste  collection, 
76,  78;  smoke,  84;  university  smoke 
investigation,  85 ;  water,  87 ;  filtra- 
tion, 92  ;  source  of  water,  92  ;  typhoid, 
92,  108;  death  rate  comparison,  107; 
kindergartens,  178;  music  in  schools, 
184;  Kindergarten  College,  248; 
schoolhouses  used  as  polling  places, 
266;  public  organs,  314,  315;  "blue 
Sunday,"  320;  the  Hump,  335,  336; 
street  obstructions,  355 ;  municipal 
art  commission,  355 ;  city  survey, 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  356;  mu- 
nicipal administration,  384. 

Pittsfield  (Mass.),  civic  theater,  318. 

Platoon  systems.     See  Fire  and  Police. 

Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of 
America,  cited,  306. 

Playgrounds,  maintenance,  165,  166; 
New  York,  297-302 ;  Chicago,  302- 
305;  Los  Angeles,  305,  306;  Play- 
ground movement,  306,  307  ;  training 
schools,  306.     See  also  Recreation. 

Plays.     See  Theater. 

Pokomoke  (Md.),  extermination  of 
flies,  127. 

Police,  need  of  reform,  7  ;  efficiency,  130 ; 
service,  136,  137;  platoon  systems, 
137.  138;  humanization,  139;  police 
women,  139-141,  399;  duties,  141; 
traffic   regulation,    141-143 ;     schools, 

144.  145- 

PoUtics,  Rochester  social  center,  257 ; 
Chicago,  348,  388,  389  ;  business,  361 ; 
Philadelphia,  377,  378  ;  legislative  and 
executive  antagonism,  378;  politicians 
and  the  commission  plan,  387.  See 
also  Administration,  Government,  etc. 

Population,  density  of,  in  big  cities,  298. 

Portals,  examples  of  city,  9,  13-29. 

Portland  (Me.),  promenades,  277 ;  pub- 
lic organs,  314. 

Portland  (Ore.),  drives,  12;  paving,  59, 
61;  death  rate,  107;  Public  Safety 
Department,  140;  Public  Defender, 
159;  home  work  for  schools,  198; 
library  and  school  cooperation,  243 ; 
library  auditoriums,  247 ;  library 
periodicals,  248 ;  motion  pictures,  264 ; 


park  system,  279;  city  planning,  329; 

Multnomah  County  Library,  341. 
Porto  Rico,  political  annexation,  16. 
Ports.     See  Harbors. 
Portsmouth  (Va.),  municipal  ownership 

of  ferries,  372. 
Potomac  River,  canal,   13 ;    parks  near 

14;  mentioned,  329. 
Poverty,  in  country,  3,  4. 
Practical  Arts  School,  Mass.,  216. 
Prague,    Joscfstadt,    densest    section    in 

Europe,  298. 
Private  initiative,  and  public  ownership, 

372.  373- 
Private  ownership,  examples,  26,  46 ;   of 

forests,  293. 
Prostitution.     See  Social  evil. 
Protection,    walled    city,    2 ;     of    cities, 

130-148. 
Providence  (R.  I.),  transportation  lines, 

9;     jitneys,    31;     smoke,    85;     death 

rate,    108 ;     typhoid,    109 ;     defective 

children,    190;     Home    School,    193; 

open  air  school,  200 ;  free  library,  246 ; 

terminal,  336. 
Pryor,  John  H.,  sun  cure  for  tuberculous 

children,  124. 
Psychopathic  institutes,   the  city's  life, 

400.     See  also  Courts. 
Public  Baths.     See  Baths. 
Public  comfort  stations,  10 ;  demand  for, 

103,  104;  cost  of,  104. 
Public  Drinking  Fountains,  10,  104. 
Public  Laundries,  use  of,  10 ;  value,  104- 

106;    at  Baltimore,  308. 
Public  opinion,  growth,  37,  147. 
Public    ownership,     26 ;      and     private 

initiative,    372,    373;     municipal    im- 

moraUty,    375.     See    also    Municipal 

Ownership. 
Public  utilities,  franchises,  367  ;   finance, 

368 ;     commissions   to    regulate,    390, 

391 ;    reform  of  govt,  regulation,  398. 

See  also  Municipal  Ownership,  and  the 

several  utilities. 
Public  Welfare,  Department  of,  Kansas 

City,  261. 
Public  Welfare  Boards.     See  Charity. 
Publicity,  in  libraries,  245-247 ;    educa- 
tional opportunities,  254. 
Pueblo   (Colo.),  advancement  of  school 

children,  179. 
Puget  Sound,  11,  24,  343;    canal  under, 

70. 
Putnam,  Herbert,  quoted,  229,  247. 


5i6 


INDEX 


Puvis  de  Chavannes,  decorations  in 
Boston  Public  Librar>'.  341  ■ 

Queensborough  (N.  Y.),  water    supply, 

90 ;   lantern  slides  in  library,  246. 
Quincy,  Hon.  Josiah,  public  libraries,  228. 

RadcliflFe  College,  392. 

Railways,  stations,  7,  13-18,  52,  53;  ter- 
minal facilities,  13,  15,  336,  337  ;  grade 
crossings,  14,  15,  18,  19;  subway  sys- 
tems, 10,  17,  20,  33-42,  64;  rapid 
transit,  17,  36-40,  44-46,  54;  tunnels, 
McAdoo  New  Jersey,  17;  20th  Cen- 
tury, 18;  building,  53,  54;  perma- 
nent, 62;  trackage,  amount,  16; 
track  elevation,  18-21 ;  freight  man- 
agement, 25 ;  street,  passengers  car- 
ried, 31 ;  municipal  regulation,  30-54; 
old  elevated,  utilization,  40 ;  cable,  52  ; 
tracks  laid  in  boulevards,  279;  tracks, 
ugly,  281 ;  Baltimore  parks  purchased 
by  street,  284;  transcontinental,  352  ; 
franchises,  367 ;  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion, 14,  16,  17,  19,  20,  341 ;  Pennsyl- 
vania Avenue,  description,  20,  21; 
Grand  Central  Station,  16,  17;  New 
York  Central,  17  ;  New  Haven,  17,  27, 
31;  Illinois  Central,  18,  19;  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  track 
elevation,  19;  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific,  track  elevation,  19;  Phil- 
adelphia and  Reading,  track  elevation, 
20;  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  tunneling, 
20;  Brooklyn  Subway,  20;  New 
Orleans  Belt,  25  ;  Long  Island,  26,  27  ; 
Forest  City  Co.,  franchise,  51 ;  United, 
52-54;  Consolidated  Electrical  and 
Subway  Co.,  63  ;  Metropolitan  Street 
Co.,  conduits,  64 ;  Tubular  Dispatch 
Co.,  mail,  64;  Empire  Subway  Co., 
terminal  system,  64;  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  220;  Baltimore  and 
Denver  Street,  receipts,  357 ;  Boston 
Elevated,  391.  See  also  Transporta- 
tion and  the  several  cities. 

Randall  (N.  Y.),  city  planning,  326. 

Rapid  Transit.  See  Railways,  Trans- 
portation, and  the  several  cities. 

Rates.     See  Electricity. 

Rats,  campaign  against,  129. 

Reading  (Pa.),  concrete  bridge,  29; 
water  conservation,  87. 

Real  estate,  speculation  in,  no. 

Recreation,  8;   division,  165,  166;   pier 


for,  171;  Gary,  Ind.,  207;  buildings 
for,  Evansville,  212;  dancing,  212; 
mxmicipal  dance  halls,  241 ;  social 
center  dances,  244 ;  Rochester,  so- 
cial center,  257 ;  at  social  centers, 
260,  261 ;  Parks  and  Playground 
Associatioti,  New  York,  265 ;  New 
York  recreation  centers,  267-269, 
297-302  ;  lacking  in  Washington,  285 ; 
athletic  field  in  Prospect  Park,  Brook- 
lyn, 290;  in  the  parks,  290-292; 
Chicago,  292,  302-305 ;  public,  296- 
325  ;  Boston,  296-297  ;  Los  Angeles, 
305,306;  Playground  Movement,  306, 
307  ;  free  play  in  Massachusetts,  307  ; 
camping,  311;  Boston  Park  and  Rec- 
reation Department,  314;  Sunday, 
320;  element  in  the  city  plan,  350; 
the  city's  life,  400.  See  also  Parks  and 
Social  Centers. 

Redlands  (Cal.),  official  flycatcher,  127. 

Red  Wing  (Minn.),  endowed  municipal 
theater,  318,  319;  municipal  owner- 
ship of  theater,  372. 

Reformatories.     See  Courts. 

Reservations,  forest,  286-288;  public, 
287. 

Residential  districts.    See  Districts. 

Rex,  Frederick,  librarian,  241. 

Rhode  Island,  transportation  lines,  9; 
water  conservation,  87  ;  juvenile  pro- 
bation, 151. 

Richardson,  William  Cummings,  libra- 
ries designed  by,  341. 

Richland  Center  (Wis.),  municipal  thea- 
ter, 318. 

Richmond  (Ind.),  high  school,  11,  212; 
art  gallery,  11,  262,  263. 

Richmond  (N.  Y.)  water  supply,  90; 
death  rate,  decrease,  108. 

Richmond  (Va.),  capitol  grounds,  11, 
277;  municipal  gas  plant,  66 ;  kinder- 
gartens, 178;   civic  center,  345. 

Riis,  Jacob,  38,  298,  302;  New  York 
Community  Christmas  Tree,  322. 

Rivers.     See  the  several  rivers. 

Riverside  (Cal.),  Christmas  tree,  322; 
Mount  Rubidoux  Pilgrimage,  323. 

Roads.     See  Streets. 

Rochester  (Minn.),  private  surgery,  119. 

Rochester  (N.  Y.),  health  department, 
10,256;  smoke  abatement,  85  ;  public 
drinking  fountains,  104  ;  milk  supply, 
inspection,  11 3-1 15;  birth  statistics, 
115;     medical    inspection    in    public 


INDEX 


517 


schools,  117;  dental  clinic,  119,  120; 
Dental  Association,  256;  public 
health,  progress,  iig;  hospital  ioT 
infectious  diseases,  124,  125;  campaiKn 
against  flies,  126;  kindergartens,  178; 
shop  school,  described,  217;  library 
with  show  windows,  246 ;  social  cen- 
ters, 255-258;  education,  256;  Min- 
isters' Association,  256;  League  of 
Civics  Clubs,  256;  Art  Club,  256; 
music,  262  ;  citizenship  centers,  265  ; 
Fourth  of  July,  322;  city  planning, 
330;  the  "Flower  City,"  330;  one 
story  schoolhouses,  344 ;  business  and 
politics,  361. 

Rock  Island  (la.),  river  shipping,  23. 

Rocky  Mountains,  Boulder's  rural  park, 
2Qo;   camping  facilities,  311. 

Rohe,  Mayor,  of  Baltimore,  cited,  307. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  mentioned,  386. 

Rosenberg  Library,  Galveston  (Tex.), 
lectures  at,  247. 

Rowan  County,  social  centers,  270. 

Roxbury  (Mass.),  George  Putnam 
School,  196. 

Rumbold,  Charlotte,  St.  Louis  Recrea- 
tion Commission,  member,  324. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  children,  defec- 
tive teeth,  117. 

Russell  Sage  Fund,  city  surveys,  356. 

Ryerson,  Art  Library,  Chicago,  249. 

Sabetha  (Va.),  city  heating,  371. 

Sacramento  (Cal.),  uses  macadam,  60; 
saloon  compensation  ordinance,  146; 
Capitol  grounds,  277 ;  city  planning, 
330. 

Safety,  19;   safety  commission,  143,  144. 

St.  Andrews,  golf,  291. 

Saint  Cloud  (Minn.),  home  work,  credit 
for,  198. 

St.  Gaudens,  Augustus,  on  city  plan- 
ning, 353. 

St.  Johnsbury  (Vt.),  museum  at,  251. 

St.  Louis  (Mo.),  street  flushing,  10,  74; 
schoolhouses,  beauty,  1 1 ;  school- 
houses,  use,  261 ;  school  architecture, 
343;  libraries,  public,  11,  231-233, 
236,  239,  240,  248,  341 ;  grade  cross- 
ing accidents,  18;  water  fronts,  23; 
private  terminal,  26 ;  viaducts,  29 ; 
municipal  lines,  competition,  30; 
subway  construction,  36;  traction 
indebtedness,  44;  street  paving,  56, 
58,  59;   conduits,  62;    arc  lights,  66; 


waste  collection,  76;  smoke  abate- 
ment, 8s ;  filtration,  92 ;  municipal 
lodging  houses,  172;  museum  co- 
operation, 206;  Mu.seum  in  Forest 
Park,  338;  manual  training,  314; 
motion  pictures,  265  ;  portable  exhibi- 
tion booth,  318;  pageant,  324,  325; 
city  hall,  340 ;  Central  Parkway,  340 ; 
billboards,  349 ;  public  decorations, 
.555  ;  commission  government,  385  ; 
"home  rule"  charter,  386. 

St.  Paul  (Minn.),  water  fronts,  23 ; 
death  rate,  decrease,  107  ;  library  and 
school  cooperation,  244 ;  boulevards, 
278;  city  planning,  329;  civic  archi- 
tecture, 337;  library  building,  341; 
municipal  administration,  385  ;  char- 
ter, 38s,  386. 

Salisbury  (N.  C),  community  building, 
270. 

Salt  Lake  City  (Utah),  gutters,  10; 
water,  extravagant  use,  87  ;  excep- 
tional children,  clinics  for,  190;  school- 
houses  used  as  polling  places,  266. 

San  Antonio  (Tex.),  mosquitoes,  exter- 
mination, 128;  policewomen,  140; 
school  gardens,  196;  city  planning, 
330;  streets,  335. 

San  Bernardino  Mountains,  camping 
facilities,  311. 

San  Diego  (Cal.),  farm  for  delinquents, 
162;   city  planning,  327. 

San  Francisco  (Cal.),  municipal  owner- 
ship, 9,  52,  371,  372;  natural  beauty, 
9;  water  fronts,  13,  22,  24-26;  ferry 
system,  16;  Union  Ferry  Station,  9, 
32;  grade  crossing  accidents,  18; 
docks,  22,  24;  belt  railroad,  22,  25; 
ports,  24;  bubonic  plague,  25;  munic- 
ipal lines,  competition,  30;  suburbs, 
32,  34;  subway  construction,  36; 
omnibus  line,  52 ;  municipal  railway, 
52-54;  franchises,  extension,  52-54; 
street  paving,  56-58;  rats,  protec- 
tion against,  1 29 ;  high  pressure  fire 
system,  133;  police  protection,  136; 
saloons,  regulation,  146;  Widows' 
Pension  Bureau,  169,  170;  family, 
unit  for  living  wage,  169;  art  instruc- 
tion, 183;  Japanese  Tea  Garden  in 
Golden  Gate  Park,  291 ;  zoological 
gardens,  292 ;  public  library,  237 ; 
Golden  Gate  Park,  281 ;  Ci%4c  Audi- 
torium for  dances,  314;  music  stand 
in  Golden  Gate  Park,  315;   Spreckels 


5iS 


INDEX 


Band  Stand,  338;  auditorium,  317; 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition,  317  ;  Sun- 
day recreation,  320;  city  planning, 
327  ;  harbor,  336 ;  city  hall,  340 ;  civic 
center,  347  ;  business  and  politics,  361  ; 
city  and  county  government  merged, 

392- 

San  Jos6  (Cal.),  rural  park,  290;  park, 
benches,  292. 

San  Pedro  (Cal.),  Marine  High  School, 
220. 

Sanitation,  results,  loi,  104,  106,  107, 
113.  254;  control,  107;  milk  inspec- 
tors, 113,  114;  crusade  against  flies, 
126;  New  York  tenements,  298.  See 
Health  and  Medical  Inspection. 

Sargent,  John,  mural  decorations  in 
Boston  Public  Library,  341. 

Sauk  City  (Wis.),  social  center  pageant, 
266 ;   civic  secretary,  266. 

Savannah  (Ga.),  water  fronts,  23; 
squares,  276;    boulevards,  277. 

Schenck,  August,  address  on  deficient 
children,  190. 

Schneider,  Herman,  Municipal  Univer- 
sity of  Cincinnati,  220. 

School  Gardens.     See  Education. 

School  Improvement  Association,  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  261. 

School  Lunches.    See  Education. 

Schoolhouses,  buildings,  341-345-  See 
also  Education. 

Schreiber,  Cornell,  fares,  equitable  rate, 
49. 

Schuylkill  River,  region  near,  21. 

Scott  Manual  Training  School,  Toledo, 
opening,  214. 

Seaports,  326-328. 

Seattle  (Wash.),  description,  9;  harbor 
improvements,  23 ;  municipal  lines, 
competition,  30;  municipal  conduits, 
building,  63  ;  municipal  lighting  plant, 
70,  71;  lighting,  expense,  72;  street 
illumination,  70,  71 ;  municipal  owner- 
ship, 71,  371 ;  waste  disposal,  81  ; 
death  rate,  decrease,  107,  108;  fire 
department,  platoon  system,  132; 
park  system,  279,  283 ;  swimming 
beach,  309;  city  planning,  329,  330; 
leveling  of  hills,  335 ;  woman's  suf- 
frage, 388. 

Seidel,    Emil,    municipal   dances   under, 

312. 

Self-government.     See  Government. 
Selma  (Ala.),  employment  bureaus,  267. 


Settlements,  Chicago,  302 ;  public  set- 
tlement, Los  Angeles,  306. 

Sewage,  systems,  2,  10,  26,  94,  102,  393; 
disposal,  93,  96-98;  sewer  farm,  loi, 
102. 

Shank,  S.  H.,  public  market,  112,  113. 

Shaw,  G.  Bernard,  playwright,  319. 

Shaw,  Mrs.  Quincy  Adams,  vocational 
bureaus,  224. 

Shaw  Memorial,  at  Boston,  339. 

Sheldon,  Theodore  B.,  endowed  munici- 
pal theater  at  Red  Wing  (Minn.),  318. 

Sioux   City    (la.),    concrete    pavement, 

59- 

Skating,  in  Chicago,  290,  302 ;  flooding 
of  vacant  lots  in  Chicago,  305. 

Skokie  Marshes,  to  belong  to  Chicago, 
289. 

Skyscrapers,  iir,  133.  See  also  Build- 
ings. 

Slums.     See  Tenements. 

Smith  College,  relation  to  theater  in 
Northampton,  318. 

Smithsonian   Institute,    at   Washington, 

251. 

Smoke  abatement,  84-86;  inspectors, 
360.     See  also  the  several  cities. 

Snow  disposal,  83-84. 

Snyder,  C.  B.  J.,  school  architect  of  New 
York,  343. 

Social  centers,  recreation,  6;  develop- 
ment, 167,  168;  Mothers'  Clubs,  222, 
261;  dances,  244;  organization,  252; 
free  lectures,  252-254;  Chicago  school 
extension,  254,  255 ;  Rochester,  255- 
258;  recreation  centers,  259-261; 
New  York  recreation  centers,  267-269 ; 
functions,  259;  Cincinnati,  259; 
Boston,  260;  Rochester,  260;  Par- 
ents' centers,  261 ;  art  centers,  262, 
263;  citizenship  centers,  265,  266; 
civic  secretaries,  266,  267;  various, 
269,  270;  pageant,  266. 

Social  evil,  in  city,  4 ;  vice  commission, 
policewomen  aid  to,  141 ;  vice  com- 
missions, 147,  148,  190;  morals  com- 
mission, 147,  148;  red  light  injunc- 
tion statutes,  148;  dance  halls,  recruit- 
ing stations  for  vice,  312  ;  community 
uses  of  leisure,  400.     See  also  Dancing. 

South  America,  steam  railways,  32. 

South  Hadley  (Mass.),  electricity,  cost, 
68. 

South  Haven  (Mich.),  municipal  trad- 
ing, 365. 


INDEX 


519 


South  Norwalk  (Conn.),  electric  plant, 
69. 

Spokane  (Wash.),  arc  lights,  66;  school 
gardens,  197  ;  park  commission,  282  ; 
parks,  283. 

Spreckels  Band  Stand,  San  Francisco, 
338. 

Springfield  (111.),  city  survey,  Russell 
Sage  Fund,  356. 

Springfield  (Mass.),  municipal  buildings, 
increase,  11;  waste  collection,  77; 
motor  equipment,  increase  in,  130,  131 ; 
exceptional  children,  clinics  for,  190; 
trade  school,  218;  public  library,  236; 
trees,  294 ;  safe  and  sane  Fourth  of 
July,  321 ;  municipal  architecture,  340. 

Sprinklers,  automatic,  131,  135,  136. 

State,  The.     See  Government. 

State  aid,  to  libraries,  228 ;  Boston  parks, 
286.    See  also  Government. 

Staten  Island,  90,  108;  hospital  on,  123 ; 
parks,  289. 

Stations.    See  Railways. 

Statistics,  library,  244  ;  density  of  popu- 
lation, 298 ;  public  baths,  307 ;  the 
city's  life,  399. 

Stevens,  Thomas  Wood,  pageant  written 
by,  325- 

Stockbridge,  Frank  Parker,  social  center 
work,  260. 

Stout,  J.  H.,  city  agricultural  school, 
197. 

Stover,  Charles  B.,  interest  in  public 
recreation,  300,  303. 

Street  Railways.     See  Railways. 

Streets,  cleanliness,  10,  11;  cleaning,  7; 
improvement  in  cleaning,  73-76,  82 ; 
flushing  appliances,  72,  73,  82;  rub- 
bish receptacles,  73,  74 ;  sweeping,  78 ; 
paving,  7,  10,  55-61,  100;  subways, 
34,  35 ;  cars  speed,  34 ;  congestion, 
Washington,  35  ;  Washington  tunnel, 
35;  street  tearing,  right,  61,  62  ;  rights 
in,  49;  improvements,  54-72,  272; 
lighting,  65-71 ;  parkings,  102  ;  park- 
ways and  boulevards,  21,  275,  277-279; 
driveways,  279,  280;  park  roads,  281 ; 
mountain  roads,  Denver,  280,  289 ; 
mountain  roads,  Kansas  City,  282 ; 
department  of,  Birmingham  (Ala.), 
293  ;  value  of,  in  Hartford,  294  ;  chil- 
dren's play  in,  296,  297,  301  ;  multi- 
plication of,  in  Philadelphia,  334 ; 
communication,  334-336 ;  New  York 
City,  334 ;  Central  Parkway,  St.  Louis, 


340;  Washington,  351;  city  plans, 
351 ;  communal  wants,  359. 

Strong,  C.  H.,  cited,  75. 

Suburbs.  See  Cities  and  the  several 
cities. 

Subways.  See  Railways  and  the  several 
cities. 

Sudbury  River,  conduit  to,  91. 

Summit  (N.  J.),  medical  cases  reported, 
118. 

Sumter  (S.  C),  municipal  administra- 
tion, 386. 

Sunday,  recreation,  320 ;  observance,  320, 
321 ;  concerts,  321. 

Sunday,  Billy,  revivalist,  311;  at  Phil- 
adelphia, 377. 

Superior  (Wis.),  paving,  55,  56;  munici- 
pal employment  office,  175. 

Supreme  Court.     See  Courts. 

Surveys,  schools,  244;  cities,  355-357. 

Susquehanna  River,  thoroughfare  along, 
329- 

Swann,  Thomas,  mayor  of  Baltimore, 
284. 

Swimming  pools,  increase,  10 ;  in  schools, 
11;  Evansville,  212;  Boston,  297; 
Chicago,  302,  303 ;  West  Side  Nata- 
torium,   Milwaukee,   308;    Brookline, 

308,  309;  salt  water,  Guthrie,  309; 
Boston,  309 ;  Seattle,  309 ;  New  York, 

309.  See  also  Recreation. 
Syracuse  (N.  Y.),  waste  collection,  77; 

children,  nervous  and  anaemic,  200; 
plantation  of  trees,  293 ;  residential 
districts,  334. 

Tacoma  (Wash.),  high  school,  11,  342; 
schoolhouse  building,  343  ;  municipal 
lines,  competition,  30 ;  Public  Safety 
Department  for  Women  and  Children, 
140;    business  districts,  332. 

Tammany,  mismanagement,  37;  New 
York  ruled  by,  38;    defeat,  74-76. 

Taxation,  expense  of  Chicago  play- 
grounds, 303;  Sunday  tax,  320;  fran- 
chises, 369  ;  District  of  Columbia,  382. 

Taylor,  Judge,  rapid  transit  system,  45 ; 
schedule  of  fares,  50. 

Technical  High  School,  Cleveland,  estab- 
lished, 215. 

Telegraphy,  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company,  63 ;  school  of  telegraphy, 
220. 

Telephones,  systems,  41;  pubHc,  103; 
Brookings  (S.  D.),  371. 


520 


INDEX 


Tenements,  Tenement  House  Commis- 
sion, lo,  2g7,  2g8;  regulation,  log-iii ; 
model,  298 ;  slums,  298 ;  Seward  Park, 
299.  See  also  Housing  and  the  several 
cities. 

Tennis,  in  Chicago  parks,  290. 

Terminals.     See  Railways. 

Texas,  viaduct,  28;  experiments  in 
municipal  administration,  384. 

Theater,  6 ;  investigated  by  Public 
Safety  Department,  67 ;  dramatic 
dubs,  268,  269  ;  Chicago  playgrounds, 
304 ;  Los  Angeles  dramatic  clubs,  305  ; 
municipal,  318-320;  municipal  owner- 
ship, 372. 

Thiry,  J.  H.,  school  savings  banks, 
205. 

Thompson,  Reginald  H.,  city  engineer, 
330. 

Tilden  library,  mentioned,  236,  341. 

Toledo  (O.),  art  galleries,  11;  art 
museum,  250;  municipal  railway  regu- 
lation, 46,  47 ;  free  fares,  48 ;  merger 
corporation,  49 ;  lack  of  home  rule,  49  ; 
paving,  58;  arc  lights,  66;  police 
system,  humanizing,  139;  Univer- 
sity, 227. 

Topeka  (Kan.),  arc  lights,  66;  Improve- 
ment Survey,  161 ;  city  survey,  355. 

Track  Elevation.     See  Railways. 

Trade.     See  Business  and  Industry. 

TraflBc,  police  regulation,  141-143; 
treated,  334-336. 

Transfers.    See  Fares. 

Transportation,    model,    9;     local,    9; 
interurban,  13;    rapid  transit,  13,  16, 
17;  improvement,  16-18;  ferries,  sys- 
tems,   13,    15-17,    22-25;     municipal 
ownership,  372;    jitneys,  30,  31;    ur- 
ban, 31-33;  unification,  43,  44 ;   horse 
cars,    52;    delivery   of   library  books, 
240;    public  motor  rates,   241;    park 
transportation,    280,    281 ;    communal 
wants,  359.     See  also  Harbors,   Rail- 
ways, and  Streets. 
Trask,  Mrs.  Katrina,  plays  by,  319. 
Trees,  beauty,  10;    in  small  cities,  292, 
293 ;    in  large  cities,    293-295 ;    city 
nursery  in  Dallas,  293. 
Trinity  River,  viaduct  over,  28. 
Trout,  Philip,  public  recreation,  313. 
Truancy.     See  Education. 
TubercxJosis.     See  Diseases. 
Tunnels.     See  Railways  and  the  several 
cities. 


Tweed,  William,  municipal  ownership  ot 
subway,  37. 

Twin  Harbors  (Mich.),  municipal  trad- 
ing, 371- 

Tyler,  Anna  C,  public  librarian,  234. 

Typhoid.     See  Diseases. 

Unemployed,  how  aided,  172-176. 
United     Shoe     Machinery     Company, 

Beverly,  organization,   221. 
United     States     Mint,     New     Orleans, 

mentioned,  328. 
Universities,    municipal,    225-227.     See 

also  Education. 
Utica    (N.    Y.),    system   of   ducts,    63; 

residential  districts,  334. 

Vacation  schools.     See  Education. 

Vallejo   (Cal.),  saloons,  reduction,   146. 

Veiller,  Lawrence,  organization  of  Tene- 
ment House  Department,  no. 

Viaducts.     See  Bridges. 

Vice.     See  Alcohol  and  Social  evil. 

Virginia,  laws  regarding  purchase  of 
land,  358- 

Virginia  (Minn.),  libraries  used  as  social 
centers,  269. 

Wage-earner's  Theater  League,  New  York, 

mentioned,  262. 
Wald,  Lilian  D.,  school  nurses,  118. 
Walker,  John  Brisben,  moimtain  roads, 

280. 
Waltham  (Mass.),  school  gardens,  197. 
Ward,   Edward  J.,  social  center  work, 

252,    258;     sent   to   Wisconsin,    260; 

cited,   270. 
Ward's  Island,  settling  basin  at,  99. 
Wardrooms,  in  New  England,  265. 
Waring,    252;    street  cleaning,   75,   76; 

incinerator,  82. 
Warren  (Pa.),  schoolhouses,  342. 
Warrensville  (O.),  hospital  service,  122. 
Washington,    George,    plan   for   capitol, 

13 ;     portrait,    266 ;     predecessor    of 

city  planners,  35°.  35 1- 
Washington   (D.  C),   city    planning,   9, 

329,   351;    monuments,    11,    21,   351; 

Mall,  12,  14;   railway  stations,  13-15. 

336,  337 ;  grade  crossings,  14 ;  capitol, 

description,    14,    15,    284;     property 

values,    increase,     15;     paving,    58; 

overhead    wires,    9,    65,    72;     waste 

collection,  78 ;    filtration,  93 ;    pubUc 

comfort  stations,    103;    housing,  im- 


INDEX 


521 


provement,  110,  1 1 1 ;  pensions  of 
policemen,  136;  patrolmen,  number, 
136,  137;  Smithsonian  Institute, 
251 ;  loan  exiiibils,  262 ;  parks, 
276,  284,  28s ;  zoological  gardens, 
292 ;  public  supervision  of  trees, 
293 ;  plantation  of  trees,  293 ;  gov- 
ernment buildings,  345;  streets,  351; 
Federal  Art  Commission,  354,  355; 
municipal  administration,  381-383 ; 
commissions,  391. 

Washington  Irving  High  School,  New 
York,  342. 

Wastes.  See  Cities,  and  the  several 
cities. 

Water  supply,  2,  7,  10,  87-94,  108,  131, 
132,  134;  meters,  lack,  86;  con- 
servation, 87,  88 ;  filtration,  91-93  ; 
drainage  system,  9.^-96,  loi ;  water- 
ways, regulation,  100;  Los  Angeles, 
363,  370;  Ypsilanti,  365,  366;  Water 
Department,  Boston,  393 ;  the  city's 
life,  399- 

Water  fronts.    See  Harbors. 

Weatherford  (Okla.),  municipal  trading, 

371. 
Wellesley   (Mass.),   water  conservation, 

87. 

Wells,  Mrs.  Alice  Stebbins,  first  police- 
woman in  Los  Angeles,  140. 

Weymouth  (Mass.),  pageant,  322. 

Wharves.     See  Harbors. 

Wheeling  (W.  Va.),  municipal  gas  plants, 
66. 

White,  William  Allen,  cited,  i. 

Whitlock,  Brand,  three-cent  fare,  49; 
police  system,  humanizing,   139. 

Wichita  (Kan.),  viaduct,  29;  audi- 
torium, 317. 

Wilde,  Oscar,  mentioned,  319. 

Willamette  (Ore.),  mentioned,  279. 

William  Penn  High  School,  Philadelphia, 
organization  of,  213. 

Williams,  Roger,  cited,  108. 

Wilmington  (Del.),  campaign  against 
flies,  126. 

Winchester  (Mass.),  Jtme  Breakfast  in 
Town  Hall,  316;  civic  center,  346; 
description,  347. 

Windsor,  England,  Long  Walk,   14. 

Winona  (Minn.),  library  building,  341. 

Winston-Salem  (N.  C),  civics,  teaching 
of,  186;    city  planning,  330. 

Wires,  telephone  conduits,  10,  41 ; 
electric  conduit   system,  53 ;    perma- 


nent conduits,  62 ;  overhead  conduits, 
62-65 ;  economy,  63 ;  private  con- 
duits, 63  :  buried,  63-65  ;  control  of, 
64 ;  private  trolley  system,  64 ;  in- 
crea.se  of,  64,  65;  value,  71;  used  for 
drainage,  loi. 

Wirt,  William  A.,  elementary  education 
improvement,  207-209;  mentioned, 
252. 

Wisconsin,  county  agricultural  schools, 
198;  continuation  schools  in,  22,  223; 
University  Extension  Department, 
253;  social  centers,  258;  motion 
pictures,  264 ;  industrial  districts, 
331;  municipal  land  purchase,  358; 
state  commission,  391. 

Wissahickon  Creek,  mentioned,  29. 

Woburn  (Mass.),  art  museum,  250,  341. 

Women,  in  industry,  3 ;  domestic,  4 ; 
policewomen,  139-141 ;  Safety  Com- 
mission, 144;  proportion  of  sexes 
at  University  of  Cincinnati,  227; 
Rochester  social  centers,  256;  woman's 
suffrage,  265  ;  and  the  liquor  question, 
388. 

Women's  Clubs,  mentioned,  232 ; 
Chicago,  254;  Salisbury,  N.  C,  270; 
playground  committee  of  Chicago, 
302,  303. 

Women's  Municipal  League,  at  Boston, 
260. 

Wood,  Walter  J.,  cited,   159- 

Woodbury,  Commissioner,  incinerator, 
built  by,  82,  83. 

Woods,  Arthur,  Police  Commissioner, 
301. 

Woodward,  Judge  Augustus  B.,  planned 
rebuilding  of  Detroit,  328. 

Woodward  High  School,  Cincinnati, 
described,  221. 

Worcester  (Mass.),  sewage  disposal,  97, 
98;  saloons,  regulation  of,  146; 
library  and  school  cooperation,  242 ; 
art    museum,    250;     wardrooms,    265. 

Workman,  D.  T.,  artist,  344. 

World's  Fair,  at  Chicago,  18,  19,  274, 
353 ;    museum  cooperation,   206. 

Wyoming  (0.),  correctional  institute, 
162. 

Yerkes,   C.  T.,   mentioned,  361. 

Yonkers  (N.  Y.),  municipal  hospital, 
120,  121;  public  baths,  310;  women 
members  of  municipal  art  corrmiis- 
sion,  355. 


522 


INDEX 


York  (Pa.),  cooperative  school  system, 

221. 

Young     Men's     Christian     Association, 

Meriden,  Conn.,  340. 
Youngstown     (O.),     ugliness    of,     331 ; 

public   comfort    station,    103;     social 

evil,  147. 


Ypsilanti  (Mich.),  municipal  ownership, 
365,  366;  gas  and  water  works,  365, 
366. 

Zangwill,  Israel,  mentioned,  319. 
Zoological    gardens,    in    several    cities, 
292. 


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